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Bloom syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by chromosomal instability and increased cancer risk, caused by biallelic mutations in the RECQL-helicase gene BLM. Previous studies have led to conflicting conclusions as to whether carriers of heterozygous BLM mutations have an increased risk to develop colorectal cancer (CRC). We recently identified two carriers of a pathogenic BLM mutation in a cohort of 55 early-onset CRC patients (≤45 years of age), suggesting an overrepresentation compared to the normal population. Here, we performed targeted sequencing using molecular inversion probes to screen an additional cohort of 185 CRC patients (≤50 years of age) and 532 population-matched controls for deleterious BLM mutations. In total, we identified three additional CRC patients (1.6%) and one control individual (0.2%) that carried a known pathogenic BLM mutation, suggesting that these mutations are enriched in early-onset CRC patients (P = 0.05516). A comparison with local and publically available databases from individuals without suspicion for hereditary cancer confirmed this enrichment (P = 0.003534). Analysis of family members of the five BLM mutation carriers with CRC suggests an incomplete penetrance for CRC development. Therefore, these data indicate that carriers of deleterious BLM mutations are at increased risk to develop CRC, albeit with a moderate-to-low penetrance.

Germline variants affecting the exonuclease domains of POLE and POLD1 predispose to multiple colorectal adenomas and/or colorectal cancer (CRC). The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of previously described heterozygous germline variants POLE c.1270C>G, p.(Leu424Val) and POLD1 c.1433G>A, p.(Ser478Asn) in a Dutch series of unexplained familial, early onset CRC and polyposis index cases. We examined 1188 familial CRC and polyposis index patients for POLE p.(Leu424Val) and POLD1 p.(Ser478Asn) variants using competitive allele-specific PCR. In addition, protein expression of the POLE and DNA mismatch repair genes was studied by immunohistochemistry in tumours from POLE carriers. Somatic mutations were screened using semiconductor sequencing. We detected three index patients (0.25%) with a POLE p.(Leu424Val) variant. In one patient, the variant was found to be de-novo. Tumours from three patients from two families were microsatellite instable, and immunohistochemistry showed MSH6/MSH2 deficiency suggestive of Lynch syndrome. Somatic mutations but no germline MSH6 and MSH2 variants were subsequently found, and one tumour displayed a hypermutator phenotype. None of the 1188 patients carried the POLD1 p.(Ser478Asn) variant. POLE germline variant carriers are also associated with a microsatellite instable CRC. POLE DNA analysis now seems warranted in microsatellite instable CRC, especially in the absence of a causative DNA mismatch repair gene germline variant.

Germline mutations of the DNA mismatch repair genes MLH1, MSH2, MSH6 or PMS2, and deletions affecting the EPCAM gene adjacent to MSH2, underlie Lynch syndrome by predisposing to early-onset colorectal, endometrial and other cancers. An alternative but rare cause of Lynch syndrome is constitutional epimutation of MLH1, whereby promoter methylation and transcriptional silencing of one allele occurs throughout normal tissues. A dominantly transmitted constitutional MLH1 epimutation has been linked to an MLH1 haplotype bearing two single-nucleotide variants, NM_000249.2: c.-27C>A and c.85G>T, in a Caucasian family with Lynch syndrome from Western Australia. Subsequently, a second seemingly unrelated Caucasian Australian case with the same MLH1 haplotype and concomitant epimutation was reported. We now describe three additional, ostensibly unrelated, cancer-affected families of European heritage with this MLH1 haplotype in association with constitutional epimutation, bringing the number of index cases reported to five. Array-based genotyping in four of these families revealed shared haplotypes between individual families that extended across ≤2.6-≤6.4 megabase regions of chromosome 3p, indicating common ancestry. A minimal ≤2.6 megabase founder haplotype common to all four families was identified, which encompassed MLH1 and additional flanking genes and segregated with the MLH1 epimutation in each family. Our findings indicate that the MLH1 c.-27C>A and c.85G>T variants are borne on a European ancestral haplotype and provide conclusive evidence for its pathogenicity via a mechanism of epigenetic silencing of MLH1 within normal tissues. Additional descendants bearing this founder haplotype may exist who are also at high risk of developing Lynch syndrome-related cancers.

Noonan syndrome (NS) is characterized by short stature, facial dysmorphisms and congenital heart defects. PTPN11 mutations are the most common cause of NS. Patients with NS have a predisposition for leukemia and certain solid tumors. Data on the incidence of malignancies in NS are lacking. Our objective was to estimate the cancer risk and spectrum in patients with NS carrying a PTPN11 mutation. In addition, we have investigated whether specific PTPN11 mutations result in an increased malignancy risk. We have performed a cohort study among 297 Dutch NS patients with a PTPN11 mutation (mean age 18 years). The cancer histories were collected from the referral forms for DNA diagnostics, and by consulting the Dutch national registry of pathology and the Netherlands Cancer Registry. The reported frequencies of cancer among NS patients were compared with the expected frequencies using population-based incidence rates. In total, 12 patients with NS developed a malignancy, providing a cumulative risk for developing cancer of 23% (95% confidence interval (CI), 8-38%) up to age 55 years, which represents a 3.5-fold (95% CI, 2.0-5.9) increased risk compared with that in the general population. Hematological malignancies occurred most frequently. Two malignancies, not previously observed in NS, were found: a malignant mastocytosis and malignant epithelioid angiosarcoma. No correlation was found between specific PTPN11 mutations and cancer occurrence. In conclusion, this study provides first evidence of an increased risk of cancer in patients with NS and a PTPN11 mutation, compared with that in the general population. Our data do not warrant specific cancer surveillance.

Mono-allelic germline mutations in mismatch repair (MMR) genes lead to Lynch syndrome, an autosomal dominant syndrome with an increased risk of predominantly colorectal and endometrial cancers. Bi-allelic germline mutations in MMR genes predispose to haematological malignancies, brain tumours, gastrointestinal tumours, polyposis and features of neurofibromatosis type 1 in early childhood.We report a brother and a sister with bi-allelic germline mutations in MSH2; a pathogenic deletion of the first 6 exons and a variant of the initiation codon (c.1A>G (p.Met1?)), whereas their phenotypes (four colorectal cancers, small bowel carcinoma and 15 adenomas at age 39 and 48, and colorectal cancer, endometrial cancer and four adenomas at age 33 and 44, respectively) are more suggestive of a mono-allelic pathogenic MMR gene mutation. The carcinomas showed microsatellite instability in the presence of MLH1, PMS2, MSH2 and MSH6 proteins, indicating that the variant c.1A>G leads to an alternative protein with reduced activity that is retained in the tumours.Our data suggest that the MSH2 variant c.1A>G (p.Met1?) should not be considered as a regular pathogenic mutation that leads to a strongly increased cancer risk, though it possibly contributes to a more severe phenotype when combined with a truncating mutation on the other allele.