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The Euwallacea sp. near fornicatus (Euwallacea sp. 1 hereafter) feeds on many woody shrubs and trees and is a pest of avocado, Persea americana Mill., in several countries including Israel and the United States. Quercivorol baits are commercially available for Euwallacea sp. 1 females (males do not fly), but their attractive strength compared to other pheromones and potential for mass trapping are unknown. We used sticky traps baited with quercivorol released at 0.126 mg/d (1×) and at 0.01×, 0.1×, and 10× relative rates to obtain a dose-response curve of Euwallacea sp. 1 attraction. The curve fitted well a kinetic formation function of first order. Naturally infested limbs of living avocado trees had attraction rates equivalent to 1× quercivorol. An effective attraction radius (EAR) was calculated according to previous equations for each of the various baits (1× EAR = 1.18 m; 10× EAR = 2.00 m). A pole with six sticky traps spaced from 0.25-5.75 m in height had captures of Euwallacea sp. 1 yielding a mean flight height of 1.24 m with vertical flight distribution SD of 0.88 m (0.82-0.96 m, 95% CI). The SD with specific EAR was used to calculate EARc, two-dimensional EAR (1× EARc = 0.99 m; 10× EARc = 2.86 m), for comparison with other insect pheromone traps and for use in simulations. The simulation methods described previously were performed with combinations of 1-16 traps with 1-50 aggregations per 9-ha plot. The simulations indicate mass trapping with quercivorol could be effective if begun in spring before Euwallacea sp. 1 establishes competing sources of attraction.

The Trivers–Willard hypothesis (TWH) predicts that in a polygynous mating system, when fitness of male offspring is more variable than fitness of female offspring, mothers should invest more heavily in the sex with the highest marginal fitness returns. Females in good condition or high social rank should benefit by investing in sons, and females in poor condition or low social rank should benefit by investing in daughters. Many empirical studies have tested different aspects of the TWH, but no study has tested the assumptions and predictions in a single polygynous species using measures of maternal condition and maternal social rank, while accounting for random effects that can also influence offspring growth and survival. Here, we followed individuals in an isolated population of pronghorn on the National Bison Range, Montana, over multiple generations and tested the assumptions and predictions of the TWH. Pronghorn females who were in good condition or were socially dominant weaned larger fawns that were in better condition, but this advantage did not increase male fawn survival or reproductive success. We detected a slight bias in birth sex ratios according to maternal social rank, but overall we did not detect any adaptive benefit to mothers adopting a sex-biased investment strategy.

The mean height and standard deviation (SD) of flight is estimated for over 100 insect species from their catches on several trap heights reported in the literature. The iterative equations for calculating mean height and SD are presented. The mean flight height for 95% of the studies varied from 0.17 to 5.40 m, and the SD from 0.12 to 3.83 m. The relationship between SD and mean flight height (X) was SD = 0.711X(-0.7849), n = 123, R(2) = 0.63. In addition, the vertical trap catches were fit to normal distributions and analyzed for skew and kurtosis. The SD was used to calculate an effective flight layer used in transforming the spherical effective attraction radius (EAR) of pheromone-baited traps into a circular EAR(c) for use in two-dimensional encounter rate models of mass trapping and mating disruption using semiochemicals. The EAR/EAR(c) also serves to reveal the attractive strength and efficacy of putative pheromone blends. To determine the reliability of mean flight height and SD calculations from field trapping data, simulations of flying insects in three dimensions (3D) were performed. The simulations used an algorithm that caused individuals to roam freely at random but such that the population distributed vertically according to a normal distribution of specified mean and SD. Within this 3D arena, spherical traps were placed at various heights to determine the effects on catch and SD. The results indicate that data from previous field studies, when analyzed by the iterative equations, should provide good estimates of the population mean height and SD of flight.

Mitigation of predation risk promotes high-elevation dispersion prior to birthing in many ungulate populations. Coyotes (Canis latrans) account for nearly 80% of pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) fawn mortality in Yellowstone National Park, but reintroduced gray wolves (Canis lupus) and factors associated with mountainous terrain can strongly influence space use by predators during summer and are likely to underlie significant spatial variation in survival rates of pronghorn fawns. We used generalized logit models paneled by maternal identity to assess the relative and interactive influences of summer wolf density, winter snow depth, and terrain slope on survival of pronghorn fawns in Yellowstone during 1999–2001 and 2004–2006. In this partially migratory population only migrant pronghorn accessed areas where wolves were numerous and winter snow depths were high. Survival of migrant fawns was higher in areas that experienced deep winter snow and had steeper slope. The influence of wolves on fawn survival was positive only in areas of low winter snowfall where coyotes were abundant, supporting predictions of a coyote-mediated effect of wolves and winter snowfall on pronghorn reproductive success. Our results suggest that deep winter snow, coupled with constraints on mobility imposed by reproduction in populations of social carnivores, can lead to the formation of highelevation refugia for migrant ungulates. This research offers novel insights into the indirect effects of wolf restoration and climatic factors on the Yellowstone predator–prey complex and a conceptual framework for examining the ecological effects in other mountain communities of restoration of, and seasonal space use by, large carnivores. DOI: 10.1644/09-MAMM-A-057.1.

The long-term viability of small, isolated populations has been questioned in light of stochasticity and bottlenecks. Following a drought in northwestern Montana in 2003, the pronghorn (Antilocapra americana )o f the National Bison Range experienced a demographic bottleneck. We used information theoretic approaches to examine the influence of sex, age, genetic variation, summer lactation, mate-search effort by females, and mating effort by males on subsequent winter survival and spring fecundity. Survival of males was influenced by age, whereas survival of females was influenced by prior energy expenditure and genetic variation, implicating inbreeding depression as the mechanism. Fecundity of females also was influenced by prior energy expenditure and genetic variation, with heterosis as the apparent mechanism. Our results agree with those of other studies that have emphasized the need to maintain genetic variation and limit inbreeding in small, isolated populations, and to account for stochasticity in population viability assessments and long-term management planning.

Although a variety of species exhibit birth-site fidelity, examples from ungulate species are rare. We recorded birth-site locations of pronghorns (Antilocapra americana) at the National Bison Range in northwestern Montana during 2000–2004 and found that 82% of females changed locations from the previous year. Females that exhibited birth-site fidelity had successfully weaned more fawns and were less likely to have experienced a fawn mortality event in the previous year than females that changed birth sites. Females that weaned a single fawn or weaned 0 fawns were equally likely to change birth sites. There was a year effect on distribution of birth sites as well as on birth-site fidelity. Dry range conditions in 2003 after multiple years of low precipitation may have caused more females to move their birth sites to areas of greater forage availability. The low observed frequency of birth-site fidelity may be a result of high fawn mortality rates at the National Bison Range. Success in the previo...

Although multiple paternity has been observed in various groups of mammals with litter sizes >1, it has not been documented in wild ungulate populations. With the use of DNA microsatellites, we investigated multiple paternity in pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) at the National Bison Range. Females in this population twin every year, and we were able to assign paternity to 25 sets of twins sired in 1999 and 2000, eleven (44%) of which were fathered by different males. Complex female mate choice is the most likely explanation for the observed pattern; however, sperm competition might contribute if a female has mated multiple times. This study represents the 1st reported example of multiple paternity in a natural ungulate population and indicates that some aspects of mammalian mating systems still are not fully understood.

Because of scientific, management, and ethical considerations, it is important to know if capture and handling of neonatal ungulates increases their mortality risk. At the National Bison Range in northwestern Montana, where coyotes annually kill many young, I captured and marked young pronghorns (Antilocapra americana) in most years from 1981 to 1996 and recorded the number that were born and the number that survived to weaning each year. Mortality of young was ≥56% in all years, and the number of coyotes removed from the range of pronghorns in May and June was significantly correlated with the percentage of young that survived. Capture effort varied from none to intense among years, and not all young were captured in any year. I found no evidence that mortality risk was increased due to handling. With proper precautions, one may handle young pronghorns without exposing them to additional risk.

A program (TAXOKEY.EXE), requiring only a few keystrokes to use, is described as a universal taxonomic key in the identification of plant and animal species by IBM-compatible personal computers. A DOS text file serves as the database for a key that can be dichotomous or with multiple choices. TAXOKEY can optionally display colour or monochrome screen pictures to illustrate the keys. Additional programs are described that are used to make the keys and check for errors, as well as convert .PCX graphic images for use with TAXOKEY. A second text file can be searched by TAXOKEY for information on particular species descriptions, notes and references.

BIOSIS.EXE is a compiled BASIC language program for use on IBM-compatible personal computers. The program converts a DOS text file of current BIOSIS Information Transfer System (B-I-T-S) references into a DOS file of standard scientific citations. The latter file can be imported into a word processor or scientific reference manager. The program also makes a random access database of references consisting of a title, author, journal, author address, and key words. This database can be searched for specific references and these selected for conversion into a DOS text file of citations as above. The random access database is also used to construct reprint request cards from information on the author, title, journal, and address as well as the user's name and address. The reprint request cards can be printed on regular paper or on “Request-a-Print”(Institute for Scientific Information) cards. The program also can process DOS files obtained from key word bibliographic searches of BI05IS Previews (which differ in file format) to obtain scientific citations for word processing or reference managers.

CARDCAT.EXE is a compiled BASIC program that manages references in a computerized card catalog (database). CARDCAT.EXE and companion files operate from the DOS command line on IBM-compatible personal computers. The program system can add, edit, or delete references, import text files of references, search for multiple text-strings in order to recall and list pertinent references, and export specified references in any journal style. More than one database can be maintained. An on-line reference manual, as well as context-sensitive help screens are included. Optional features include color, sound, password, and database type.

A computer program, coded in QuickBASIC ® language, is used to make a non-redundant list of references, in alphabetical order, that are found in a scientific manuscript (formatted as a DOS text file). The program can extract either direct or indirect citations as in the following : Byers (1983a, b, 1984) and Miller and Keen, 1960; Byers et l., 1984; Byers 1984) An IBM-compatible personal computer is required to run the executable program

The attack sites of the bark beetle, I. typographus, on Norway spruce logs were observed to be more uniformly spaced than random using nearest neighbor analysis. A computer model which simulated various degrees of uniformity in spatial distribution was compared to the observed attack pattern. The model showed that a mechanism of spacing between attacks, in which beetles need to be greater than a minimum distance of about 2.5 em away from the nearest neighbor before attacking, can explain the observed distributions in nature. In the model, the distribution of angular directions to the four nearest neighbors appeared random, regardless of the degree of uniformity in the spatial distribution. The model for the mechanism of spacing can be applied to other organisms that exhibit uniform distributions.

An electronic integrated-circuit thermometer with multiple probes (3 by 4 by 5 mm each) is described and was used to measure temperatures at the surface and at several depths in the forest litter of Norway spruce, Picea abies (L.) Karst., throughout 3 days in spring. The temperatures at the various depths were recorded on a single-pen recorder/voltmeter by means of a multiplexing circuit which in turn connected each of four or more sensor probes to the amplifying circuit and pen recorder for a specific amount of time. This scanning time per probe can be adjusted from 1 s to about 1 h. The possible effects of temperature in the forest litter on the survival and flight initiation of bark beetles, especially Ips typographus (L.), during their spring swarming is discussed.

La signification adaptative des marques odorantes produites par le mâle de A.a. pour couvrir l'urine femelle est etudiee en observant les harems des mâles, le nombre de femelles par groupe, le nombre des centres mâles presents et leur position vis-a-vis du groupe, les mictions des femelles, les frequences de depot de marquage odorant par les mâles sur les urines femelles

Simulation of sunrise and sunset light conditions is achieved with an electronic light intensity control using DC- or AC-powered incandescent lamps. The duration of the sunrise and sunset is easily adjusted and the photoperiod is controlled with a standard 24-h timer. The light intensity control is especially useful for behavioral studies of crepuscular insects.

Social behavior of the collared peccary was studied on the lower, eastern slopes of the Mazatzal Mountains, Arizona. The social unit in this species is a cohesive herd, in which small inter-individual distances are maintained. Two conspicuous acts, one olfactory and one auditory, functioned to maintain close spacing. Social interactions were brief but tended to synchronize the activities of animals and also to bring them closer together. Amicable and neutral actions occurred far more frequently than agonistic interactions. Most agonistic behavior did not involve physical contact. Cooperative nursing, predator defense, and feeding occurred; all adults were tolerant of young, and males showed little overt competition over estrous females. The absence of sexual dimorphism, the 1:1 sex ratio within social groups, and the small, precocial litters in this species suggest an evolutionary history of pronounced sociality. Kin selection possibly was important in the evolution of social behavior in peccaries.