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In the first paper of this series, we examined existing methods of optical meteor trajectory estimation and developed a novel method which simultaneously uses both the geometry and the dynamics of meteors to constrain their trajectories. We also developed a simulator which uses an ablation model to generate realistic synthetic meteor trajectories which we use to test meteor trajectory solvers. In this second paper, we perform simulation validation to estimate radiant and velocity accuracy, which may be achieved by various meteor observation systems as applied to several meteor showers. For low-resolution all-sky systems, where the meteor deceleration is generally not measurable, the multi-parameter fit method assuming a constant velocity better reproduces the radiant and speed of synthetic meteors. For moderate field of view systems, our novel method performs the best at all convergence angles, while multi-parameter fit methods generally produce larger speed errors. For high-resolution, narrow field of view systems, we find our new method of trajectory estimation reproduces radiant and speed more accurately than all other methods tested. The ablation properties of meteoroids are commonly found to be the limiting factor in velocity accuracy. We show that the true radiant dispersion of meteor showers can be reliably measured with moderate field of view (or more precise) systems provided appropriate methods of meteor trajectory estimation are employed. Finally, we compare estimated and real angular radiant uncertainty and show that for the solvers tested the real radiant error is on average underestimated by a factor of two. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many existing optical meteor trajectory estimation methods use the approximation that the velocity of the meteor at the beginning of its luminous phase is equivalent to its velocity before atmospheric entry. Meteoroid kinetic energy loss prior to the luminous phase cannot be measured, but for some masses and entry geometries neglecting this loss may lead to non-negligible deceleration prior to thermal ablation. Using a numerical meteoroid ablation model, we simulate the kinematics of meteoroids beginning at 180 km with initial velocities ranging from 11 km s−1 to 71 km s−1, and compare model velocities at the moment of detection to measurements. We validate the simulations by comparing the simulated luminous beginning heights with observed beginning heights of different populations of meteors detected with different optical systems. We find that most low-velocity meteoroids have a significant velocity difference of 100 m s−1 to 750 m s−1 (depending on meteoroid type, mass, and observation system). This systematic underestimate of meteoroid speeds also results in systematically lower semimajor axes for meteoroid orbits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meteor showers and their outbursts are the dominant source of meteoroid impact risk to spacecraft on short time-scales. Meteor shower prediction models depend on historical observations to produce accurate forecasts. However, the current lack of quality and persistent world-wide monitoring at optical meteoroid sizes has left some recent major outbursts poorly observed. A novel method of computing meteor shower flux is developed and applied to Global Meteor Network data. The method is verified against previously published observations of the Perseids and the Geminids. The complete mathematical and algorithmic details of computing meteor shower fluxes from video observations are described. As an example application of our approach, the flux measurements of the 2021 Perseid outburst, the 2020–2022 Quadrantids, and 2020–2021 Geminids are presented. The flux of the 2021 Perseids reached similar levels to the 1991–1994 and 2016 outbursts (ZHR ∼ 280). The flux of the Quadrantids shows high year-to-year variability in the core of the stream while the longer lasting background activity is less variable, consistent with an age difference between the two components. The Geminids show a double peak in flux near the time of peak. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical properties of ten millimetre-sized meteoroids from the Southern Delta Aquariids (SDA) shower are derived using optical observations from the Canadian Automated Meteor Observatory between 2020 and 2023. The meteors are found to ablate in two distinct erosion stages, the second stage showing a single, bright leading fragment. Our modelling interprets these observations as evidence for equal masses of compact grains embedded in a porous, low density matrix. The average bulk density of SDA meteors is found to be 1420 ± 100   |$\rm {kg \ m^{-3}}$|⁠ , with the compact component having a density of 2310 ± 160 |$\rm {kg \ m^{-3}}$| and the porous component a density of 700 ± 110   |$\rm {kg \ m^{-3}}$|⁠. The high bulk density of SDA meteors is comparable to densities found for the Quadrantid and Geminid showers, both of which also have low perihelion distances. This suggests that thermal desorption may play a significant role in the processing of meteoroids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has recently been shown by Egal et al. that some types of existing meteor in-atmosphere trajectory estimation methods may be less accurate than others, particularly when applied to high-precision optical measurements. The comparative performance of trajectory solution methods has previously only been examined for a small number of cases. Besides the radiant, orbital accuracy depends on the estimation of pre-atmosphere velocities, which have both random and systematic biases. Thus, it is critical to understand the uncertainty in velocity measurement inherent to each trajectory estimation method. In this first of a series of two papers, we introduce a novel meteor trajectory estimation method that uses the observed dynamics of meteors across stations as a global optimization function and that does not require either a theoretical or an empirical flight model to solve for velocity. We also develop a 3D observational meteor trajectory simulator that uses a meteor ablation model to replicate the dynamics of meteoroid flight, as a means to validate different trajectory solvers. We both test this new method and compare it to other methods, using synthetic meteors from three major showers spanning a wide range of velocities and geometries (Draconids, Geminids, and Perseids). We determine which meteor trajectory solving algorithm performs better for all-sky, moderate field-of-view, and high-precision narrow-field optical meteor detection systems. The results are presented in the second paper in this series. Finally, we give detailed equations for estimating meteor trajectories and analytically computing meteoroid orbits, and provide the python code of the methodology as open-source software. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In June 2019 the Earth will approach within 5° mean anomaly of the centre of the Taurid resonant swarm, its closest post-perihelion encounter with Earth since 1975. This will be the best viewing geometry to detect and place limits on the number of NEOs proposed to reside at the swarm centre until the early 2030s. We present an analysis of the optimal times and pointing locations to image NEOs associated with the swarm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Global Meteor Network (GMN) utilizes highly sensitive low-cost CMOS video cameras which run open-source meteor detection software on Raspberry Pi computers. Currently, over 450 GMN cameras in 30 countries are deployed. The main goal of the network is to provide long-term characterization of the radiants, flux, and size distribution of annual meteor showers and outbursts in the optical meteor mass range. The rapid 24-h publication cycle the orbital data will enhance the public situational awareness of the near-Earth meteoroid environment. The GMN also aims to increase the number of instrumentally observed meteorite falls and the transparency of data reduction methods. A novel astrometry calibration method is presented which allows decoupling of the camera pointing from the distortion, and is used for frequent pointing calibrations through the night. Using wide-field cameras (88° × 48°) with a limiting stellar magnitude of +6.0 ± 0.5 at 25 frames per second, over 220 000 precise meteoroid orbits were collected since 2018 December until 2021 June. The median radiant precision of all computed trajectories is 0.47°, 0.32° for |$\sim 20{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$| of meteors which were observed from 4 + stations, a precision sufficient to measure physical dispersions of meteor showers. All non-daytime annual established meteor showers were observed during that time, including five outbursts. An analysis of a meteorite-dropping fireball is presented which showed visible wake, fragmentation details, and several discernible fragments. It had spatial trajectory fit errors of only ∼40 m, which translated into the estimated radiant and velocity errors of 3 arcmin and tens of meters per second. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A search for metre-sized and larger exo-atmosphere Perseid meteoroids via their surface reflected sunlight has been made with the 1.2-m Elginfield Telescope. A total survey time of 9.66 h was accumulated during the nights of 2002 August 10, 11 and 12. To a limiting apparent magnitude of +17, we made no distinct detection of any large exo-atmosphere Perseid meteoroids. Our telescopic survey results constrain the upper limit to the spatial number density of metre-sized and larger Perseid meteoroids to be less than per 109 km3. We have also analysed a data set of possible in-atmosphere Perseid fireball events detected by space-based optical and infrared sensors. Operating at a detection threshold of magnitude −17, the space-based sensors have detected eight possible Perseid fireballs in the 15-d window, centred on the time of shower maximum, over the cumulative time interval from 1978 August to 2000 August. The space-based sensor data yield a spatial number density of per 109 km3 for metre-sized and larger Perseid meteoroids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bulk density of a meteoroid affects its dynamics in space, its ablation in the atmosphere, and the damage it does to spacecraft and lunar or planetary surfaces. Meteoroid bulk densities are also notoriously difficult to measure, and we are typically forced to assume a density or attempt to measure it via a proxy. In this paper, we construct a density distribution for sporadic meteoroids based on existing density measurements. We considered two possible proxies for density: the KB parameter introduced by Ceplecha and Tisserand parameter, TJ. Although KB is frequently cited as a proxy for meteoroid material properties, we find that it is poorly correlated with ablation-model-derived densities.We therefore followthe example of Kikwaya et al. in associating density with the Tisserand parameter. We fit two density distributions to meteoroids originating from Halley-type comets (TJ < 2) and those originating from all other parent bodies (TJ > 2); the resulting two-population density distribution is the most detailed sporadic meteoroid density distribution justified by the available data. Finally, we discuss the implications for meteoroid environment models and spacecraft risk assessments. We find that correcting for density increases the fraction of meteoroid-induced spacecraft damage produced by the helion/\antihelion source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]