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kk states that knowing entails knowing that one knows, and K ¬ K states that not knowing entails knowing that one does not know. In light of the arguments against kk and K ¬ K ⁠ , one might consider modally qualified variants of those principles. According to weak kk , knowing entails the possibility of knowing that one knows. And according to weak K ¬ K ⁠ , not knowing entails the possibility of knowing that one does not know. This paper shows that weak kk and weak K ¬ K are much stronger than they initially appear. Jointly, they entail kk and K ¬ K ⁠. And they are susceptible to variants of the standard arguments against kk and K ¬ K ⁠. This has interesting implications for the debate on positive introspection and for deeper issues concerning the structure and limits of knowability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses collective housing, a voluntary form of shared living positioned in between the conventional intimacy sphere and public life, to explore the relation between the organized and the intimate. Combining multisited observations and interviews, the study reveals collective housing to represent fairly depersonalized homes characterized by residential transition and formalization. Rather than addressing the dwellings in terms of detachment, however, the article demonstrates that they are exchange(st)able structures with existential bearing. It is through, not despite, the partially organized framework of daily chores and routines that closeness emerges. Grounded in these findings, the article calls for a reframing of intimacy outside of its traditional contexts and proposes the term "communal intimacy" to conceptualize a sociality of closeness that is bound not to exclusive dyads but to an inclusive relational infrastructure characterized by the strength of many weak ties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to orthodoxy, there are two basic moods of supposition: indicative and subjunctive. The most popular formalizations of the corresponding norms of suppositional judgement are given by Bayesian conditionalization and Lewisian imaging, respectively. It is well known that Bayesian conditionalization can be generalized (via Jeffrey conditionalization) to provide a model for the norms of partial indicative supposition. This raises the question of whether imaging can likewise be generalized to model the norms of 'partial subjunctive supposition'. The present article casts doubt on whether the most natural generalizations of imaging are able to provide a plausible account of the norms of partial subjunctive supposition . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the way that sport and art as expressions of human confrontation with violence in Europe. Topics discussed include the representation of boxing in visual art; the human interest in violence and the need to control or contain it through symbolic representation; and also mentions about the gradual civilization or formalization of the lethal and chaotic potentiality of fighting.

Since it was presented in 1963, Chisholm's paradox has attracted constant attention in the deontic logic literature, but without the emergence of any definitive solution. We claim this is due to its having no single solution. The paradox actually presents many challenges to the formalization of deontic statements, including (i) context-sensitivity of unconditional oughts, (ii) formalizing conditional oughts, and (iii) distinguishing generic from non-generic oughts. Using the practical interpretation of 'ought' as a guideline, we propose a linguistically motivated logical solution to each of these problems, and explain the relation of the solution to the problem of contrary-to-duty obligations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a large intellectual discrepancy between most formal growth models described by economists and descriptions of growth in economic history. This paper draws on an evolutionary theory of economic growth that brings together appreciative theorizing regarding growth and formal theorizing. It aims to piece together a relatively coherent appreciative theoretical account of economic development at a sectoral level by laying out a story of the growth, and development, of a manufacturing sector, from birth to maturity, and perhaps until death, that seems to fit many cases and which can serve as a target for formalization. The paper first describes and tries to link two broad bodies of appreciative evolutionary theoretic writing. The first proposes that a new technology develops along a relatively standard track from the time it is born, to its maturity, and that firm and industry structure 'coevolve' with the technology. The other is concerned with the development of institutions in response to changing economic conditions, incentives, and pressures. The paper then considers 'punctuated equilibrium' before concluding with a consideration of two economic developmental implications that appear to flow from the analysis. One concerns the pattern of change of productivity, of capital intensity, and relative variables associated with economic growth, as a technology and industry structure develop. The other is concerned with implicitly cross-country comparisons, and is focused on how 'comparative advantage' develops in a new industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of structured doctoral programs (SDPs) is changing the conditions of doctoral training in Europe and worldwide. SDPs were introduced to reorganize doctoral training to make it more transparent and to improve the quality of doctoral training and supervision. This article suggests a conceptual framework to assess the outcome of these goals against the backdrop of existing pathways toward the doctorate, namely, the doctoral status group research assistants, scholarship holders, and external candidates. Based on empirical data from the large longitudinal study on doctoral candidates in Germany, ProFile, we describe the amount of structuration and formalization within those status groups and compare it to the structure of SDPs. Results reveal that traditional status groups already structure the context of doctoral training remarkably. In front of this backdrop, SDPs change the landscape in the expected way by improved transparency, course offers, and increased exchange with the supervisor. However, the effects of SDP membership vary between traditional status groups; thus, not all status groups profit to the same degree. We conclude that the structure of doctoral training has diversified through the introduction of SDPs and provides an outlook on the changes that can be expected if the number of SDPs increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Logic L was introduced by Lewitzka (2017, J. Logic and Comput., 27, 201-212) as a modal system that combines intuitionistic propositional logic IPC and classical propositional logic CPC: L is a conservative extension of CPC, and for any propositional formula ϕ, ϕ is a theorem of IPC iff ϕ is a theorem of L. In this article, we consider L3, i.e. L augmented with S3 modal axioms, define basic epistemic extensions and prove completeness w.r.t. algebraic semantics. The resulting logics combine classical knowledge and belief with intuitionistic truth. Some epistemic laws of Intuitionistic Epistemic Logic studied by Artemov and Protopopescu (2016, Rev. Symbol. Logic, 9, 266-298) are reflected by classical modal principles. In particular, the implications 'intuitionistic truth⇒knowledge⇒classical truth' are represented by the theorems ϕ→Kϕ and Kϕ→ϕ of our logic EL3, where we are dealing with classical instead of intuitionistic knowledge. Finally, we show that a modification of our semantics yields algebraic models for the systems of Intuitionistic Epistemic Logic introduced in (Artemov and Protopopescu, 2016, Rev. Symbol. Logic, 9, 266-298). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AGM belief revision theory and the BMS framework of dynamic epistemic logic both deal with the formalization of belief change, the former in a single-agent setting and the latter in a multi-agent setting. In this article, we study the relation between these two formalisms.To be fair,we restrict our attention to the AGM operation of expansion since the original BMS framework does not allow for belief revision. The generalization of the AGM operation of revision to the multi-agent setting is dealt with in the companion paper [Aucher (2010, Logic Journal of the IGPL, 18, 530–558)]. Besides, because AGM theory follows the internal approach, instead of the original BMS framework we define and deal with its internal version. This allows us to show that the AGM operation of expansion can naturally be viewed in the multi-agent setting of the BMS framework as the operation of private announcement, which goes against the claims of [van Ditmarsch, van der Hoek and Kooi (2004, Advances in Modal Logic, 335–346)]. In parallel, we also provide conditions under which seriality of accessibility relations is preserved during an update, in the BMS framework as well as its internal version: it is a preliminary step towards the introduction of revision mechanisms into these frameworks. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In most proposals for logic-based models of argumentation dialogues between agents, the arguments exchanged are logical arguments of the form 〈Φ,α〉 where Φ is a set of formulae (called the support) and α is a formula (called the claim) such that Φ is consistent and Φ entails α. However, arguments presented by real-world agents do not normally fit the mould of being logical arguments. They are normally enthymemes, and so they only explicitly represent some of the premises for entailing their claim and/or they do not explicitly state their claim. For example, for a claim that ‘you need an umbrella today’, a husband may give his wife the premise ‘the weather report predicts rain’. Clearly, the premise does not entail the claim, but it is easy for the wife to identify the assumed knowledge used by the husband in order to reconstruct the intended argument correctly (i.e. ‘if the weather report predicts rain, then you need an umbrella’). Whilst humans are constantly handling examples like this, proposals for logic-based formalizations of the process remain underdeveloped. In this article, we present a logic-based framework for handling enthymemes, some design features of which are influenced by aspects of relevance theory (proposed by Sperber and Wilson). In particular, we use the ideas of maximizing cognitive effect and minimizing cognitive effort in order to enable a proponent of an intended logical argument to construct an enthymeme appropriate for the intended recipient, and for the intended recipient to deconstruct the intended logical argument from the enthymeme. We relate our framework back to Sperber andWilson's relevance theory via some formal properties. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We study the problem of determining a concise, quantifier-free monadic predicate for a given set of objects in a given interpretation. We address both DNF and CNF predicates, as well as important sub-languages thereof. The problem is formalized as the search of a minimal element in a set of predicates equipped with a binary relation. We show that the problem has always a solution, that finding a minimal solution is always hard, but much harder when neither the given set of objects nor its complement are the extent of a formal concept (in the sense of Formal Concept Analysis). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the views of nominalists regarding natural numbers. The author suggests use particular sentence structures to avoid recognizing numbers as an object. They comment on how nominalists perceive the logical consequences and formalization of numerical deductions and their refusal of the validity of such deductions.

Out of a folklore–like fact about the counterexample function to P=NP, a function which grows about as fast as the Busy Beaver function, we review the consequences of our (with da Costa) exotic formalization for P=NP and then speculate about possible ways to extend our work. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We introduce the notion of X-stable models parametrized by a given logic X. Such notion is based on a construction that we call weak completions: a set of atoms M is an X-stable model of a theory T if M is a model of T, in the sense of classical logic, and the weak completion of T (namely ) can prove, in the sense given by logic X, every atom in the set M. We prove that, for normal logic programs, the result obtained by these weak completions is invariant with respect to a large family of logics. Two kinds of logics are mainly considered: paraconsistent logics and normal modal logics. For modal logics we use a translation proposed by Gelfond that identifies ¬ □ a with ¬ a. As a consequence we prove that several semantics (recently introduced) for non-monotonic reasoning (NMR) are equivalent for normal programs. In addition, we show that such semantics can be characterized by a fixed-point operator. Also, as a side effect, we provide new results for the stable model semantics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars of the American workplace agree that the employment relationship has changed in significant ways but disagree about whether workplaces are now best characterized as ‘legalized’ or ‘restructured’, a designation that implies a market orientation in the treatment of workers, We investigate whether a new set of employment practices, namely flexible work arrangements (FWA) such as flextime, compressed work weeks, telecommuting and reduced-hours schedules, are administered using the principles and practices associated with either or both management regimes. Our analyses of in-depth interviews with human resources managers from 41 diverse organizations show that most organizations have formalized FVVA with written policies, but these policies institutionalize managerial discretion rather than creating outright rights for employees. Even when organizations write a formal written policy, FWA are managed as negotiated perks available to valued workers if and when managers choose to allow them, as suggested by the restructured workplace regime. We argue that this ‘formalized discretion’ explains the low utilization and unequal access to FWA found in previous studies, These findings suggest the need to reconsider the theoretical link between formalization and employees' rights in the workplace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a logical approach to plan recognition that builds on Kautz's theory of keyhole plan recognition, defined as the problem of inferring descriptions of high‐level plans from a set of descriptions of observed, typically low‐level, actions. Kautz's approach is based on a formalization of the structural information contained in an abstraction/decomposition hierarchy of plan schemas: the inferred plans are selected by an observer agent from amongst those that can be generated from this hierarchy. In this paper, we present two logics for plan recognition. The first theory, like Kautz's, is monotonic, meaning that all possible plans compatible with the observations are treated as equally plausible by the observer. The second theory is based on rejecting this simplifying assumption, and is nonmonotonic. To develop this theory, we adapt ideas from belief revision and conditional logic to define plan recognition inference as a nonmonotonic consequence operation based on an observer's plausibility ordering on the possible plans. The logics incorporate a sound and complete theory of temporal intervals based on Allen's approach, enabling the plan recognition agent to handle temporal information relating multiple observations. An underlying motivation for our work is to provide an intuitive semantic interpretation of plans using situation semantics and to interpret plan recognition as inference over courses of events. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Focuses on the argument that formalism is non-neutral. Need for provisional closure; Analysis on the open systems; Complexity of an economic system.

The impossibility of tiling the mutilated chess board has been formalized and verified using Isabelle. The formalization is concise because it is expressed using inductive definitions. The proofs are straightforward except for some lemmas concerning finite cardinalities. This exercise is an object lesson in choosing a good formalization: one at the right level of abstraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this paper is to provide a formalization of monotonic belief and belief about belief in a multiagent environment. We distinguish between ideal beliefs, i.e. those beliefs which satisfy certain 'idealized' properties which are unlikely to be possessed by real agents, and real beliefs. Our formalization is based on a set-theoretic specification of beliefs and, then, on the definition of the appropriate constructors which intentionally present the sets identified. This allows us to provide a uniform and taxonomic characterization of the possible ways in which ideal and real beliefs can arise. We compare our notion of ideal with the notion of logical omniscience from the modal literature, and show that the first is much weaker and more granular than the second. We provide intuitions about the conceptual importance of the cases analysed by proving and discussing some equivalence results with some important modal systems modelling (non) logical omniscience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on theoretical accounts of power in social exchange networks and social exclusion in networks. It uses a new experimental setting to test assumptions that appear to be implicit in all network exchange theories of power. It also tested for the relative impact of inclusion versus exclusion and differential responses to multiple exchange partners given exchange with just one of them. Recently a number of new theories have emerged that predict resource outcomes or profit for different positions in social exchange networks. Current theories of power generally share implicit assumptions about the preferences and negotiation behaviors of those participants. The authors of Network Exchange Theory have provided for their theory a relatively high level of formalization and empirical support through rigorous laboratory tests. The article focuses on exchange relations wherein actors negotiate the terms of agreements to transmit and receive valued resources. Exchanges benefit both parties, but the use of power in an exchange relation may result in differential benefits.

Discusses the proper uses of formalization in philosophical logic. Uses of logic for expression of formal structures of thought and an inference mechanism; Need for pragmatic selectivity in the application of formalization to the development of particular formal systems; Inapplicability of logic to derive substantive metaphysical, normative or scientific content.

In this article the author discusses idealism. The author focuses formalization of argument for idealism in a book by Graham Priest. The argument was related to a dialethic object which has inconsistent properties. The argument for idealism also focused on some important facts related to the epsilon calculus.

This paper presents the elements of a theory of measurement for communication and cognitive processes, along with specific operationalization of rules and procedures. Longitudinal data taken from a large sociology department are presented to illustrate the use of the method and show its relationship to commonly used procedures. These data show that the new procedures provide scales whose precision of measurement exceeds typical practice while at the same time saving considerable time and effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We want to have general recursion in type theory without giving up the requirement on termination. To this end, we offer an account of well-founded relations definition. We present schemas that allow the construction of well-founded relations from simpler ones. These schemas when properly instantiated give particular proofs of well-foundedness useful in program construction. We present the definitions in the context of Martin-Löf's logical framework extended with pattern matching. The formalizations were verified using the ALF system.1 [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article cites a study suggesting some of the basic or common process which underlie manifestations of formalization in the small group. Formalization is supposed to be the process by which groups follow prescribed patterns of procedure; an increasing complexity in the social structure, a progressive prescription and standardization of social relationships and finally, an increasing bureaucratization of the organization. It is observed that as an organization develops, the tasks of the leadership or executive board and the office staff not only become more complex, but their duties become elaborate, enlarged, and specialized. The principle of division of labor comes more and more into operation, executive authority and responsibility undergo division and subdivision. There is thus constituted a rigorously defined hierarchical structure of positions. Ten associations were intensively studied by the case history method. These ten associations were: the Minneapolis League of Women Voters; the Ancient Order of United Workmen of Minnesota; Minnesota Council of Churches; Minnesota Nurses' Association; Alano Society of Minneapolis; Minnesota Association of Cooperatives; Lutheran Welfare Society; Minnesota Division, American Cancer Society; Hennepin County League of Planned Parenthood; and the International Institute. The organizational histories of these associations were constructed from the documentary material taken from the files of the organization.

The article focuses on a study, which was undertaken with the purpose of testing the hypothesis of a cumulative process of formalization in voluntary associations in the Minneapolis and St. Paul metropolitan area in 1952. No attempt was made to define the concept of "formalization" in precise terms. This study of voluntary associations consisted of a survey of 91 organizations. A random sample was drawn from a list of 456 voluntary associations compiled by the Minnesota Council for Adult Education. This list was used because it seemed to be the most inclusive enumeration of existing voluntary associations in the Twin City area. The random sample consisted of 119 associations, 84 of which responded to the request for an interview. Another random sample of seven organizations was drawn from a list of 79 voluntary associations compiled by the Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce. The reason for the second sample was primarily due to the desire to increase the number of service clubs represented in the first sample.

The article presents the philosophical concepts of coherentism and foundationalism. A tenet of coherentism is presented, and the article argues that it can be proven wrong and that its negation supports the concept of foundationalism. The fact that foundationalism is supported by the negation of that claim suggests that the proof of the claim questions foundationalism.

Although acquisition criteria are a fundamental issue for SLA research, they have not always been adequately defined or elaborated in the literature. This article critically scrutinizes one such criterion, the emergence criterion, proposing an explicit, operational definition. After discussing emergence as a theoretical construct, the article addresses several points involved in its operationalization. These points concern all stages of a research project, from data collection to data organization and analysis. A concrete example is provided, leading to the formulation of an emergence criterion for the acquisition of two grammatical structures of Italian as a second language. Issues of reliability and validity are also discussed, providing indications for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]