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Within the ΛCDM cosmology, dark matter haloes are composed of both a smooth component and a population of smaller gravitationally bound subhaloes. These components are often treated as a single halo when properties, such as density profiles, are extracted from simulations. Recent work has shown that density profiles change substantially when subhalo mass is excluded. In this paper, we expand on this result by analysing three specific host halo properties – concentration (c NFW), spin (λB), and shape (c / a) – when calculated only from the smooth component of the halo. This analysis is performed on both Milky Way-mass haloes and cluster-mass haloes in high-resolution zoom-in N -body simulations. We find that when subhaloes are excluded, the median value of (1) c NFW is enhanced by |$\approx 30\pm 11$| and |$\approx 77\pm 8.1~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$| for Milky Way-mass (⁠|$10^{12.1}\, \text{M}_\odot$|⁠) and cluster-mass (⁠|$10^{14.8}\, \text{M}_\odot$|⁠) haloes, respectively, (2) λB is reduced for Milky Way-mass by |$\approx 11\pm 4.9~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$| and cluster-mass haloes by |$\approx 27\pm 3.5~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$|⁠. Additionally, with the removal of subhaloes, cluster-mass haloes tend to become more spherical as the ratio of minor-to-major axis, c / a , increases by |$\approx 11\pm 3.6~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$|⁠ , whereas Milky Way-mass haloes remain approximately the same shape with c / a changed by |$\approx 1.0\pm 5.8~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$|⁠. Fractional changes of each of these properties depend primarily on the amount of mass in subhaloes and, to a lesser extent, mass accretion history. Our findings demonstrate that the properties of the smooth components of dark matter haloes are biased relative to the total halo mass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present observational constraints on the galaxy–halo connection, focusing particularly on galaxy assembly bias from a novel combination of counts-in-cylinders statistics, P (N CIC), with the standard measurements of the projected two-point correlation function w p(r p), and number density n gal of galaxies. We measure n gal, w p(r p), and P (N CIC) for volume-limited, luminosity-threshold samples of galaxies selected from SDSS DR7, and use them to constrain halo occupation distribution (HOD) models, including a model in which galaxy occupation depends upon a secondary halo property, namely halo concentration. We detect significant positive central assembly bias for the Mr < −20.0 and Mr < −19.5 samples. Central galaxies preferentially reside within haloes of high concentration at fixed mass. Positive central assembly bias is also favoured in the Mr < −20.5 and Mr < −19.0 samples. We find no evidence of central assembly bias in the Mr < −21.0 sample. We observe only a marginal preference for negative satellite assembly bias in the Mr < −20.0 and Mr < −19.0 samples, and non-zero satellite assembly bias is not indicated in other samples. Our findings underscore the necessity of accounting for galaxy assembly bias when interpreting galaxy survey data, and demonstrate the potential of count statistics in extracting information from the spatial distribution of galaxies, which could be applied to both galaxy–halo connection studies and cosmological analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of cosmology, galaxy evolution, and astronomical transients with current and next-generation wide-field imaging surveys like the Rubin Observatory Legacy Survey of Space and Time are all critically dependent on estimates of photometric redshifts. Capsule networks are a new type of neural network architecture that is better suited for identifying morphological features of the input images than traditional convolutional neural networks. We use a deep capsule network trained on ugriz images, spectroscopic redshifts, and Galaxy Zoo spiral/elliptical classifications of ∼400 000 Sloan Digital Sky Survey galaxies to do photometric redshift estimation. We achieve a photometric redshift prediction accuracy and a fraction of catastrophic outliers that are comparable to or better than current methods for SDSS main galaxy sample-like data sets (r ≤ 17.8 and z spec ≤ 0.4) while requiring less data and fewer trainable parameters. Furthermore, the decision-making of our capsule network is much more easily interpretable as capsules act as a low-dimensional encoding of the image. When the capsules are projected on a two-dimensional manifold, they form a single redshift sequence with the fraction of spirals in a region exhibiting a gradient roughly perpendicular to the redshift sequence. We perturb encodings of real galaxy images in this low-dimensional space to create synthetic galaxy images that demonstrate the image properties (e.g. size, orientation, and surface brightness) encoded by each dimension. We also measure correlations between galaxy properties (e.g. magnitudes, colours, and stellar mass) and each capsule dimension. We publicly release our code, estimated redshifts, and additional catalogues at https://biprateep.github.io/encapZulate-1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We demonstrate how the total luminosity in satellite galaxies is a powerful probe of dark matter haloes around central galaxies. The method cross-correlates central galaxies in spectroscopic galaxy samples with fainter galaxies detected in photometric surveys. Using models, we show that the total galaxy luminosity, L sat, scales linearly with host halo mass, making L sat an excellent proxy for M h. L sat is also sensitive to the formation time of the halo. We demonstrate that probes of galaxy large-scale environment can break this degeneracy. Although this is an indirect probe of the halo, it yields a high signal-to-noise ratio measurement for galaxies expected to occupy haloes at <1012 M⊙, where other methods suffer from larger errors. In this paper, we focus on observational and theoretical systematics in the L sat method. We test the robustness of our method of finding central galaxies and our methods of estimating the number of background galaxies. We implement this method on galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) data, with satellites identified in fainter imaging data. We find excellent agreement between our theoretical predictions and the observational measurements. Finally, we compare our L sat measurements to weak lensing estimates of M h for red and blue subsamples. In the stellar mass range where the measurements overlap, we find consistent results, where red galaxies live in larger haloes. However, the L sat approach allows us to probe significantly lower mass galaxies. At these masses, the L sat values are equivalent. This example shows the potential of L sat as a probe of dark haloes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present measurements of the redshift-dependent clustering of a DESI-like luminous red galaxy (LRG) sample selected from the Legacy Survey imaging data set, and use the halo occupation distribution (HOD) framework to fit the clustering signal. The photometric LRG sample in this study contains 2.7 million objects over the redshift range of 0.4 < z < 0.9 over 5655 deg2. We have developed new photometric redshift (photo- z) estimates using the Legacy Survey DECam and WISE photometry, with σNMAD = 0.02 precision for LRGs. We compute the projected correlation function using new methods that maximize signal-to-noise ratio while incorporating redshift uncertainties. We present a novel algorithm for dividing irregular survey geometries into equal-area patches for jackknife resampling. For a five-parameter HOD model fit using the MultiDark halo catalogue, we find that there is little evolution in HOD parameters except at the highest redshifts. The inferred large-scale structure bias is largely consistent with constant clustering amplitude over time. In an appendix, we explore limitations of Markov chain Monte Carlo fitting using stochastic likelihood estimates resulting from applying HOD methods to N -body catalogues, and present a new technique for finding best-fitting parameters in this situation. Accompanying this paper, we have released the Photometric Redshifts for the Legacy Surveys catalogue of photo- z 's obtained by applying the methods used in this work to the full Legacy Survey Data Release 8 data set. This catalogue provides accurate photometric redshifts for objects with z < 21 over more than 16 000 deg2 of sky. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cold dark matter haloes consist of a relatively smooth dark matter component as well as a system of bound subhaloes. It is the prevailing practice to include all mass, including mass in subhaloes, in studies of halo density profiles in simulations. However, often in observational studies satellites are treated as having their own distinct dark matter density profiles in addition to the profile of the host. This difference can make comparisons between theoretical and observed results difficult. In this work, we investigate density profiles of the smooth components of host haloes by excluding mass contained within subhaloes. We find that the density profiles of the smooth halo component (without subhaloes) differ substantially from the conventional halo density profile, declining more rapidly at large radii. We also find that concentrations derived from smooth density profiles exhibit less scatter at fixed mass and a weaker mass dependence than standard concentrations. Both smooth and standard halo profiles can be described by a generalized Einasto profile, an Einasto profile with a modified central slope, with smaller residuals than either a Navarro–Frenk–White or Einasto profile. These results hold for both Milky Way-mass and cluster-mass haloes. This new characterization of smooth halo profiles can be useful for many analyses, such as lensing and dark matter annihilation, in which the smooth and clumpy components of a halo should be accounted for separately. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We develop and implement two new methods for constraining the scatter in the relationship between galaxies and dark matter haloes. These new techniques are sensitive to the scatter at low halo masses, making them complementary to previous constraints that are dependent on clustering amplitudes or rich galaxy groups, both of which are only sensitive to more massive haloes. In both of our methods, we use a galaxy group finder to locate central galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey main galaxy sample. Our first technique uses the small-scale cross-correlation of central galaxies with all lower mass galaxies. This quantity is sensitive to the satellite fraction of low-mass galaxies, which is in turn driven by the scatter between haloes and galaxies. The second technique uses the kurtosis of the distribution of line-of-sight velocities between central galaxies and neighbouring galaxies. This quantity is sensitive to the distribution of halo masses that contain the central galaxies at fixed stellar mass. Theoretical models are constructed using peak halo circular velocity, V peak, as our property to connect galaxies to haloes, and all comparisons between theory and observation are made after first passing the model through the group-finding algorithm. We parametrize scatter as a lognormal distribution in M * at fixed V peak, σ[ M *| V peak]. The cross-correlation technique yields a constraint of σ[ M *| V peak] = 0.27 ± 0.05 dex at a mean V peak of 168 km s−1, corresponding to a scatter in log  M * at fixed M h of σ[ M *| M h] = 0.38 ± 0.06 dex at |$M_\text{h}=10^{11.8}\, \text{M}_\odot$|⁠. The kurtosis technique yields σ[ M *| V peak] = 0.30 ± 0.03 at V peak = 209 km s−1, corresponding to σ[ M *| M h] = 0.34 ± 0.04 at |$M_\text{h}=10^{12.2}\, \text{M}_\odot$|⁠. The values of σ[ M *| M h] are significantly larger than the constraints at higher masses, in agreement with the results of hydrodynamic simulations. This increase is only partly due to the scatter between V peak and M h, and it represents an increase of nearly a factor of 2 relative to the values inferred from clustering and group studies at high masses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concentration parameter is a key characteristic of a dark matter halo that conveniently connects the halo's present-day structure with its assembly history. Using 'Dark Sky', a suite of cosmological N -body simulations, we investigate how halo concentration evolves with time and emerges from the mass assembly history. We also explore the origin of the scatter in the relation between concentration and assembly history. We show that the evolution of halo concentration has two primary modes: (1) smooth increase due to pseudo-evolution; and (2) intense responses to physical merger events. Merger events induce lasting and substantial changes in halo structures, and we observe a universal response in the concentration parameter. We argue that merger events are a major contributor to the uncertainty in halo concentration at fixed halo mass and formation time. In fact, even haloes that are typically classified as having quiescent formation histories experience multiple minor mergers. These minor mergers drive small deviations from pseudo-evolution, which cause fluctuations in the concentration parameters and result in effectively irreducible scatter in the relation between concentration and assembly history. Hence, caution should be taken when using present-day halo concentration parameter as a proxy for the halo assembly history, especially if the recent merger history is unknown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most models for the statistical connection between galaxies and their haloes ignore the possibility that galaxy properties may be correlated with halo properties other than halo mass, a phenomenon known as galaxy assembly bias. And yet, it is known that such correlations can lead to systematic errors in the interpretation of survey data that are analysed using traditional halo occupation models. At present, the degree to which galaxy assembly bias may be present in the real Universe, and the best strategies for constraining it remain uncertain. We study the ability of several observables to constrain galaxy assembly bias from redshift survey data using the decorated halo occupation distribution (dHOD), an empirical model of the galaxy–halo connection that incorporates assembly bias. We cover an expansive set of observables, including the projected two-point correlation function w p(r p), the galaxy–galaxy lensing signal ΔΣ(r p), the void probability function VPF(r), the distributions of counts-in-cylinders P (N CIC), and counts-in-annuli P (N CIA), and the distribution of the ratio of counts in cylinders of different sizes P (N 2/ N 5). We find that despite the frequent use of the combination w p(r p) + ΔΣ(r p) in interpreting galaxy data, the count statistics, P (N CIC) and P (N CIA), are generally more efficient in constraining galaxy assembly bias when combined with w p(r p). Constraints based upon w p(r p) and ΔΣ(r p) share common degeneracy directions in the parameter space, while combinations of w p(r p) with the count statistics are more complementary. Therefore, we strongly suggest that count statistics should be used to complement the canonical observables in future studies of the galaxy–halo connection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A halo merger tree forms the essential backbone of a semi-analytic model for galaxy formation and evolution. Recent studies have pointed out that extracting merger trees from numerical simulations of structure formation is non-trivial; different tree building algorithms can give differing merger histories. These differences should be carefully understood before merger trees are used as input for models of galaxy formation. We investigate the impact of different halo merger trees on a semi-analytic model. We find that the z = 0 galaxy properties in our model show differences between trees when using a common parameter set. The star formation history of the universe and the properties of satellite galaxies can show marked differences between trees with different construction methods. Independently calibrating the semi-analytic model for each tree can reduce the discrepancies between the z = 0 global galaxy properties, at the cost of increasing the differences in the evolutionary histories of galaxies. Furthermore, the underlying physics implied can vary, resulting in key quantities such as the supernova feedback efficiency differing by factors of 2. Such a change alters the regimes where star formation is primarily suppressed by supernovae. Therefore, halo merger trees extracted from a common halo catalogue using different, but reliable, algorithms can result in a difference in the semi-analytic model. Given the uncertainties in galaxy formation physics, however, these differences may not necessarily be viewed as significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Merger tree codes are routinely used to follow the growth and merger of dark matter haloes in simulations of cosmic structure formation. Whereas in Srisawat et. al. we compared the trees built using a wide variety of such codes, here we study the influence of the underlying halo catalogue upon the resulting trees. We observe that the specifics of halo finding itself greatly influences the constructed merger trees. We find that the choices made to define the halo mass are of prime importance. For instance, amongst many potential options different finders select self-bound objects or spherical regions of defined overdensity, decide whether or not to include substructures within the mass returned and vary in their initial particle selection. The impact of these decisions is seen in tree length (the period of time a particularly halo can be traced back through the simulation), branching ratio (essentially the merger rate of subhaloes) and mass evolution. We therefore conclude that the choice of the underlying halo finder is more relevant to the process of building merger trees than the tree builder itself. We also report on some built-in features of specific merger tree codes that (sometimes) help to improve the quality of the merger trees produced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]