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Publications showing the prospects of combining computer simulation with atomic force microscopy in the study of polymer biological objects and materials for various purposes are analyzed. The problems that arise when these methods are used together are described. Three main directions are presented in which atomic force microscopy is used in conjunction with computer simulation: study of the surface topography of polymer materials; measurement of the force curve of the interaction of the atomic force probe with polymer structures; and determination of the energy of intermolecular interactions.

Methods of electrochemical analysis of biological objects based on the reaction of electro-oxidation/electro-reduction of molecules are presented. Polymer nanocomposite materials that modify electrodes to increase sensitivity of electrochemical events on the surface of electrodes are described. Examples of applications electrochemical biosensors constructed with nanocomposite material for detection of biological molecules are presented, advantages and drawbacks of different applications are discussed.

Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs), due to their unique spectral-luminescent properties, are attractive for visualizing biological objects in biological and medical research. The main methods for registering luminescent QDs in the cells are various types of scanning microscopy. It is important to note that during the use of QDs, they are delivered into different extracellular and intracellular environments, which can affect the surface integrity of QDs and, as a result, the photophysical characteristics of QDs. In this connection, changes in the characteristics of the luminescence signals of non-target QDs based on InP/ZnS, coated with polyethylene glycol with COOH-groups, were studied, which can reduce the risk of toxic effects in the process of biological and medical research. In this work, QDs-InP accumulated in endosomes of A549 cultured cells. Analysis of the photophysical properties of QDs showed that the average intensity of QDs in endosomes was lower than the intensity of clusters outside the cells, which can be explained by a lower concentration of QDs in intracellular clusters. However, the QDs luminescence lifetime in clusters, independent of concentration, was also 5–10 ns lower. Analysis of the QDs solution showed that a decrease in the quantum yield and QDs luminescence lifetimes is observed in solution with pH 4.0, but not 7.4–8.0. Also, the process of significant formation of QDs aggregates in such solutions was not revealed. In this connection, changes in the photophysical properties of QDs interacting with cells, can be associated with the entry into endosomes with a low pH level. Thus, the analysis of the luminescence lifetimes of QDs allows to obtain additional information about their state in comparison with the determination of the fluorescence intensity. Our results are important for an adequate interpretation of data concerning both the efficiency of QDs uptake and analysis of the properties of intracellular compartments in which QDs accumulate.

Bacterial paleontology studies the roles played by organisms in the genesis of sediments and ores. It is, therefore, important to clearly distinguish in-situ biological objects present in the rock material from various contaminants of later origin and from mineral structures that merely resemble organisms. The same is crucial for correct interpretation of alleged biogenic structures found in meteorites. The use of a scanning electron microscope equipped with an EDX microanalysis system and designation of model objects from previously studied rock samples allows us to address this problem. This approach also needs to be applied to previously discovered structures.

The effects of exposure to two different stress factors—a weak static magnetic field (WSMF) with a magnetic induction of 200 μT and oligopeptide epigenetic regulators—were studied. The results of explant exposure to tissue-specific oligopeptides and to WSMF were comparable. Experiments on cognitive behavior suggested that oligopeptides Ala–Glu–Asp–Pro and Lys–Glu–Asp–Ala had a beneficial effect on medium-term memory formation. It is noted that external WSMFs efficiently affect biological objects due to their high penetrating capacity in biological media.

A novel technological approach based on ion implantation for obtaining nanostructured substrates for the visual characterization of ultrasmall biological objects and microorganisms has been described. By means of argon-ion implantation of silicate glasses through surface masks made of copper wire mesh, periodic microstructures in the form of gratings with mesh sizes of 50 × 50 μm were formed. The novel substrates were tested by scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, as well as atomic force microscopy, using bacteria of the genera Bacillus and Staphylococcus deposited onto their surface.

A method for quantitation of exogenous cis fatty acids in the presence of exogenous cis and trans fatty acids that does not require time-consuming and tedious chromatographic separation is described. In it, we use an inhibitor that blocks Elovl6, an enzyme involved in fatty acid synthesis in vivo. Samples prepared in the absence or presence of the inhibitor are sequentially analyzed by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. The developed method is used for analyzing endogenous cis fatty acids synthesized in cancer cells.

Data from the studies of mechanisms underlying the development of the sporoderm (envelopes of spores and pollen grains) are analyzed in the aspect of colloidal interactions (the micellar hypothesis that implies the contribution of self-assembly processes to the development) and supplemented by results of experimental in vitro modeling of sporoderm-like structures where the driving force were physical-chemical regularities of colloidal systems. The relative contributions of the genome and self-assembly to the emergence of complex biological envelopes are considered.

Detection systems with deferred registration of luminescence signals are promising for performing complex tasks of imaging of biological objects due to their simplicity and low cost. In the present work, β‑NaYF4:Tm3+Yb3+/NaYF4 nanocrystals with anti-Stokes photoluminescence have been used in deferred registration systems. It has been shown that there is a significant time delay between the exciting laser pulse and luminescence signal, which makes it possible to use this class of nanoparticles in the creation of wide-field imaging systems with deferred registration. The possibility of using nanoparticles for detecting a photoluminescence signal in the second transparency window of biotissue has been demonstrated. This system can be based on the resonance excitation and detection of the photoluminescence signal of Yb3+ ions.

An instrument has been developed for measuring the force of affine interactions, in particular, in biological systems. The structure of the instrument is described. It includes a replaceable cartridge with a quartz resonator for analyzing various biosystems by measuring the signal of detachment of molecules from the resonator surface. The instrument is a sensor device with which it is possible to analyze various biological objects, including viruses and bacteria, as well as to carry out DNA identification. Software has been developed to automate the processing of results and the identification of objects. The instrument can be used to carry out express analysis in medical institutions and research laboratories.

This review analyzes the general patterns of synergism, whose manifestation under the simultaneous actions of various agents does not depend on the biological objects and the effect being analyzed. The existence of an optimum temperature that provides the maximum synergy for simultaneous application of hyperthermia with various physical or chemical agents is demonstrated. Examples of the dependence of synergism on the intensity of electromagnetic radiation applied simultaneously with a fixed elevated temperature are given. It is shown that the synergistic effect of interaction of these factors with hyperthermia increases as the intensity of applied agents increases, reaches a maximum, and then decreases. A biophysical interpretation of this original dependence of synergism on the intensity of the used agents is suggested. This interpretation is based on the idea that the formation of additional lethal changes as a result of the interaction of sub-lesions underlies the mechanism of synergistic interaction.

The concentration of carbon nanopipes (CNPs) can be detected and quantitatively measured in various matrices, including biological ones, using the methodology of formation of a gamma-emitting radioactive isotope marker in a CNP. The methodology has been tested in a 10-day experiment on the sprouting of wheat seeds on an artificial substrate damped by a water suspension of radioactively marked Taunit-M multiwall CNPs (MCNP) (Russia). Changes in the activities of samples of developing plant organs—root system, coleoptile and root base, and stem with leaves—makes it possible to define the quantitative concentration of MCNPs passing from a substrate with a known concentration of the given nanomaterial into a plant. The results show promising outlooks for applying this methodology for quantitative measurements of CNP mass/concentration in various media and biological objects.

In in vitro experiments, the possibility of using a luminescent system extracted from the luminous fungus Armillaria borealis has been shown to detect and determine the concentration of hispidin. A linear dependence of the luminescent response on the content of hispidin in solutions in the concentration range of 5.4 × 10–5–1.4 × 10–2 µM was detected. The stability of the enzyme system and the high sensitivity of the bioluminescent reaction allows carrying out multiple measurements with the analyte detection limit of 1.3 × 10–11 g. The obtained results show the prospects of creating a rapid bioluminescent method for the analysis of medical substances or extracts from various biological objects for the presence of hispidin.

To date, simple and operative electrochemical methods are widely used to study antioxidant properties of various biological objects. One of them is the amperometric method, which is used in various fields of science, technology and medicine to determine the antioxidant activity (AOA) of various beverages, extracts and biological fluids, as well as the total content of antioxidants (AOs) present in them. Measurements of AOA (electrochemical oxidability) of some known individual AO and their mixtures by the amperometric method was performed in the present work. The coefficients of their oxidability were determined. The AOA values obtained correlate well with the AOA of these compounds measured by other methods. The coincidence of the experimental values of AOA and the values calculated with the use of the coefficients of oxidability for each component of the mixture was observed for most combinations of binary mixtures of used AOs. This indicates the absence of interaction between them (synergism or antagonism) during the oxidation. Several mixtures with a lower value of the measured AOA compared with the calculated value (antagonism) represented the exception. During the electrochemical oxidation of the “oxidized glutathione + ascorbic acid” mixture, partial reduction of glutathione by ascorbic acid is likely to proceed, which results in an excess of the measured AOA value over the calculated value. The results obtained may be useful when working with devices based on the amperometric method.

The paper presents results of experimental biotechnological research that has been carried out at the Nanotechnological Center of the Central Research Institute of Structural Materials Prometey. This includes development of gradient functional coatings (bactericidal, anticorrosion, catalytically active) and defense systems for biological objects against negative influence of magnetic and electromagnetic radiation; high-speed shock wave treatment of medicines, phytomaterials, and alimentary, fodder, and medical products; and laser technologies for creating hybrid biomimetic compositions.

Using acoustoelectronic sensors not containing sensitive coatings, we studied a series of microbiological preparations: yeast cells and bacteria, as well as virus particles, immobilized in hydrogels of different concentration. The obtained measurement data on the acoustic characteristics make it possible to (1) reveal the presence of biological objects in both fluid media and agarose-based hydrogels of various concentration; (2) establish the physical mechanism that results in acoustoelectronic detection; (3) evaluate changes in the concentration of biological objects and their electric conductivity. The data confirm the possibility of applying the acoustoelectronic technique to detect microbiological objects and observe their growth in hydrogel media. We discus the limitations and drawbacks of the acoustoelectronic technique.

The results of the development and testing of elements of a test bench for investigating the impact of accelerated particle beams on biological objects, electronics, and other targets are presented. The systems for beam monitoring and target positioning were tested on extracted argon beams in the framework of experiments on studying the radiation hardness of electronic components.

As is known, the creation of effective and safe drugs rests on priority trends of scientific and technological advance, based on new knowledge in the field of life sciences and living-system technologies. Essentially, the entire diversity of biotechnologies is primarily targeted at using biological objects as a means for the production of effective and safe drugs, among which the share of phytopreparations and biologically active substances from plants amounts to 60–65%.

A method for recording the metabolic frequencies lying in the extremely high-frequency range, which are characterized by changes in the admittance of biological objects and lead to changes in the activity of their life processes, is proposed. The measuring facility uses the “pass-through” method to identify these frequencies in special containers with biological media. It is shown that the metabolic changes may occur owing to chiral-dependent effects, which take place in the volumes of these media. Performed calculations illustrate the contribution of chiral components to the output admittance of media for different concentrations of liquid.

The search for efficient radioprotective substances that alleviate various effects of ionizing radiation has been going on for more than 6 decades. The chronology of the major discoveries in this field and the changes in opinions, trends, and paradigms are considered in the present review. Various classes of chemical compounds that can be administered either before or after irradiation to protect biological objects from short- and long-term effects of ionizing radiation are considered. Dose-modifying factors, recommended time of administration, tissue specificity, and the toxicity of different classes of radioprotective substances are considered and the mechanisms that underlie the actions, as well as the practical applications, of these substances, are described. A section of this review is dedicated to future prospects and the directions of research on radioprotective substances.

A new method for estimating the diagnostic value of characters for computer keys to biological objects is proposed. The algorithm described can be used for correct comparison of qualitative and quantitative characters. A brief review of the history of biological diagnostics is given.

Optical techniques and facilities for identification and online monitoring of construction materials, vegetable substances, and biological tissues and substrates for use have been discussed based on the structural, colorimetric, and spectral analyses of their images.

By using new computer measurement system that allows you to create conditions for reversible depolarization of cell membranes, we investigated the correlation instantly values active and capacitive components with quality indicators of muscle tissue. Electrical test of objects is represented as a large array of data. Found that individual features of the muscle tissue, depending on the species, are impact on the array. When subsequently his compared with a unique array of references, it becomes possible to express and reliable assessment of the type of muscle tissue.

Life in the Universe emerges and develops under certain conditions in accordance with the general laws of nature, in particular, in accordance with the law of temporal hierarchies, the second law of thermodynamics and the principle of stability of matter. Biological evolution and organism's aging are accompanied by a change in the chemical and supramolecular compositions of living bodies. As shown by the author in 1977 these well-known changes have the thermodynamic nature (origin). Phenomenological hierarchical thermodynamics of near-equilibrium quasi-closed systems allows us to explain and predict the evolutionary transformation in the living world. From a viewpoint of power-consuming substance of biological objects the phenomenon of life, first, is the struggle for power-consuming chemicals. The accumulation of this substance in biological systems is associated with the aspiration of the specific Gibbs function of formation of supramolecular structures of living organisms to a minimum. The development of classical science opens up new horizons to explore the real world and contributes to the success of gerontology and geriatrics. This paper is a brief review containing new results.

Isotopic effects of deuterium in water are studied in a broad range of concentrations on a number of biological objects of different organization levels. The results obtained show that biological objects are sensitive to variations of isotope composition in water. A decrease or increase in deuterium concentrations in water may cause activation or inhibition of biological functions. The values of biological isotopic effects of low deuterium concentration may even be higher than those of high deuterium concentration. No regularity in response for all the objects studied failed to find out in a range of deuterium concentration in water from 4 ppm to 1%.

Acoustic absorption has been measured in a series of biological tissue specimens—porcine muscle, renal and fat tissues—by the standard insert-substitution method, as well as by ultrasonic phase conjugation. Comparison of the experimental results and revealed differences confirm the promise of using phase conjugate waves to measure acoustic losses in biological objects. It is demonstrated that in inhomogeneous tissues, the phase conjugation method makes it possible to obtain a more reliable estimate of dissipative losses.

A new optical scheme for the microscopic investigation of biological objects is proposed, which combines principles of the optical-coherence and spectral microscopy. The proposed system is based on the acousto-optic filtration of images in the reception channel of a microinterferometer. A prototype of the instrument has been manufactured and it has been demonstrated that the acousto-optic filtration does not violate the interference of two beams carrying images, which makes it possible to extract information both about three-dimensional spatial features and about spectral properties of the object studied.

The first human flight to space performed by Yu.A. Gagarin on April 12, 1961 was a crucial event in the history of cosmonautics that had a tremendous effect on the further progress of human civilization. Gagarin’s flight had been preceded by targeted biomedical research with the use of diverse biological objects on board rockets and artificial satellites. This research led to the conclusion on the fundamental possibility for humans to fly in space. After a series of early flights and improvements in the medical support system, space missions to the Salyut and Mir stations were gradually extended to record durations. The foundations of this extension were laid by systemic research in the fields of space biomedicine and related sciences. The current ISS system of the crew’s medical care has been successful in maintaining the health and performance of cosmonauts, as well as in providing the conditions for research in various fields related to space flights. The ISS abounds in opportunities for the preparation for piloted interplanetary missions. At the same time, the ground-based simulation of a mission to Mars is a venue for carrying out scientific and technological experiments in space biomedicine.

Two classes of primordial biological objects closely approximating the transitional period are considered. The description of Kolmogorov’s (algorithmic) complexity of primordial objects displays certain difficulties with extrapolation of properties of these objects to prebiology, demonstrating the inefficiency of an object-oriented approach in reconstruction of the transitional period. The possibility of the “natural” growth of the complexity of the biological world due to the complexity of the preexisting systems (in prebiology and earlier) is discussed.

The existing and promising methods for modification of track-etched membranes are considered and analyzed; they are compared for subsequent separation of biological objects. On the basis of the results of comparative analysis, the simplest and most producible method of modification of track-etched membranes has been chosen.

A method for quantitative assessment of the metabolite concentrations in digital phantoms of the biological objects has been proposed. The objects under consideration are expected to have a complex geometry of diffusive sources. We present an algorithm for calculation of non-steady state gradients of the diffusing compounds under their constant border concentration. The algorithm is based on the analytical solutions for a centrally symmetric spherical source. Spatial-time distribution of metabolites is considered by the example of glucose diffusion around blood vessels in the rat brain pial. It was shown that glucose level in the tissue was increased after glycine treatment and under condition of other biological system parameters to be unchanged.

Electrochemical methods for the determination of group B vitamins reported in the last 25 years and the most important chemical and analytical parameters of potentiometry and voltammetry methods for these vitamins in pharmaceutical items, foods, and biological objects are reviewed. Sensor systems, first of all biosensors, seem to be the most efficient; further progress should be anticipated in this area. Possibility of the automation of analysis by coupling of sensors with flow-injection analysis also offers promise.

We have surveyed the most well-known and accessible informational resources, consolidating data on interactions of molecular biological objects. Three main criteria are discussed: quality (coverage and reliability) of the information present, ability to analyze experimental data, and ease of results visualization. Several algorithms of data analysis, base on various types of resources, and statistics for its evaluation are named.

We consider a method for mathematical modeling of ecologo-biological systems based on computational studies that unites formal and informal, analytic and imitational approaches. The method is based on complex studies that include a complete set of operations, from filtering biological information to constructing a set of interrelated models, including simplified ones, that admit an analytic (parametric) study. This lets us overcome the disadvantages of purely imitational approaches: they are restricted by numerical experiments and often have huge models. The proposed approach has been used to analyze animal population fluctuations with the tundra community model "vegetation-lemmings-arctic foxes." As a result of our studies, we formulate hypotheses on leading mechanisms that determine the fluctuations of tundra animal populations.

Deuteroporphyrin and hematoporphyrin as complete methyl esters and their complexes with iron(III) were synthesized and characterized by NMR and electronic spectroscopy. For the first time the changes of the specific heat capacity of these solid biological objects with temperature were investigated by the method of differential scanning calorimetry. These parameters are shown to be smooth functions of temperature in the range 290–360 K, indicating the absence of the phase transitions in these systems.

The imaging methods used at the ANKA Synchrotron Light Source (Institute for Synchrotron Radiation, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology) are briefly reviewed. Examples of recent applications of the phase-contrast imaging method using a grating interferometer and fast radiography with optic flow data analysis to study static and moving biological objects are presented.

It was found that water preliminary activated with vector potential changes mobility of infusoria brought into it, the rate of sugar fermentation in yeast cells and the drinking attractivity of water for mice. It was also shown that water physical parameters changed after water activation: UV absorption spectrum and state of a silica admixture. It was supposed that water is the initial target when weak electromagnetic fields have an influence on biological objects.

This review is based to a substantial degree on our priority developments and research at the IR-8 reactor of the Russian Research Centre Kurchatov Institute. New theoretical and experimental methods of neutron-capture therapy are developed and applied in practice; these are: A general analytical and semi-empiric theory of neutron-capture therapy (NCT) based on classical neutron physics and its main sections (elementary theories of moderation, diffuse, reflection, and absorption of neutrons) rather than on methods of mathematical simulation. The theory is, first of all, intended for practical application by physicists, engineers, biologists, and physicians. This theory can be mastered by anyone with a higher education of almost any kind and minimal experience in operating a personal computer. Methods of phantom experimental studies for the semi-empiric theory of NCT using epithermal neutrons. Experimental methods for measuring and monitoring the spectral composition of therapeutic, research, and analytical neutron beams for NCT and other investigations with neutrons. Experimental methods of remote neutron dosimetry of biological objects with intentional modification of the element composition of tissues in NCT. Methods of mass investigations in pharmacokinetics and biologic efficiency of novel dose-forming preparations. Methods for tailoring of therapeutic, research, and analytical neutron beams for NCT and other investigations with neutrons. Methods of capillary neutron optics application for NCT and other fundamental and applied studies with neutrons.

The effect of properties of liver lipids on the interrelation between the contents of different lipid fractions has been studied on nine groups of intact SHK female mice. To reveal interrelations, lipids were divided into four groups depending on their antioxidative activity, prooxidant properties, antiperoxide activity, and the content of peroxide in lipids. The data obtained indicate that the physicochemical properties of lipids affect the biosynthesis and degradation of phospholipids, which plays a significant role in the origination of consequences under the action of unfavorable factors on biological objects having the different intensity of oxidative processes.

Chronic effects of low doses of low-intensity ionizing radiation (IR) on biological objects have gained great social significance. This has given a considerable impetus to research into the biological effects and mechanisms of such exposures, both in Russia and abroad. In this paper, an overview of the physicochemical and molecular basis of IR influence at low doses is provided. Means of cell protection from radiation damage are studied and an analysis of the typical features and differences in the radiation effects at low and high doses is carried out. We considered DNA radiation damage, both in cell cultures and in vivo, as well as the processes and results of their repair. Particular attention is paid to changes in the basic paradigms of biological radiation effects at low doses.

The paper reports the construction of mathematical models to study the phenomenon of self-regulation (autostabilization) of temperature in the bioreactor of a continuous type with one or two biological objects. These models have been parametrically identified and their adequacy proved on the basis of experimental data. They have been used to find the boundaries of the existence of this phenomenon and to analyze its basic occurrences. The performed calculation experiments have shown how to use this phenomenon in practical applications.

The application of group theory to the description of biological objects’ pseudosymmetry is proposed and substantiated by the example of the rotatory symmetry of actinomorphic and zygomorphic flowers. The problems of biosymmetrics terminology are considered, and point symmetry elements are characterized as applied to the description of floral symmetry. Fundamental provisions of group theory are stated. Application of the Curie principle to biological objects is described. Algorithms for the quantitative assessment of floral pseudosymmetry are given; the description is made of floral pseudosymmetry in terms of group theory, including the evolutionary aspect. The conclusion is made that adaptation of group theory to the description of biological objects’ symmetry (biosymmetrics) is important not only from the fundamental point of view but also as a tool of interdisciplinary mutual understanding among biologists, physicists, crystallographers, and other specialists whose communicative language is mathematics.

The paper describes a thermocouple psychrometer for measurements of water potential (ψw) and its components—osmotic potential (ψs + m) and turgor pressure (ψp)—in biological objects. The isopiestic method applied in this work does not require preliminary scarification of plant material for eliminating cuticular resistance to diffusion of water vapors. The device is reliable and simple in operation owing to an original design of replaceable plungers carrying the thermocouples. A modified construction of the lid for a thermocouple chamber and the application of a cryoholder excluded the necessity of removing the sample from the chamber after ψw measurements prior to its freezing in liquid nitrogen and subsequent thawing for determination of ψs +m. This feature improves the accuracy of determining ψp, which is calculated as ψw − ψs + m. The device can operate with minimal quantities of plant material and allows determination of all three components (ψw, ψs + m, ψp) for the same sample.

Possible mechanisms of action of weak combined magnetic fields on biological systems have been discussed in terms of quantum mechanics. The approaches proposed make it possible to solve the problem of the failure to compare the energy of active factors with the energy of thermal motion (kT problem). A mechanism of action of combined magnetic fields on biosystems has been proposed.

Most of real technical systems and biological objects with sufficiently high organization are complex hierarchical partially controllable systems. In the paper for modeling and analysis of reliability of such systems the method of decomposable semi-regenerative processes is used. A simple example illustrates our approach.

It is shown that meso-substituted polymethine dyes are promising spectral and fluorescent probes for biomacromolecules. Some dyes are recommended for application in real biological objects and were used for analysis of extracellular media of the eye.

The principles of design and the properties of various types of acoustothermometers intended for measuring the internal temperature of biological objects are discussed. The block diagrams of modulation, compensatory, correlation, and scanning multichannel acoustothermometers are considered. Possible applications of acoustothermometers, including medical ones, are discussed.

A simple and convenient method for the quantitative evaluation of the activity of hydrolytic enzymes and their inhibitors has been proposed. This method is based on the immobilization of a substrate on agarose gel and the following evaluation of the enzyme activity by measuring the hydrolysis area around the well containing the enzyme solution. The method was shown to be applied to the evaluation of the activity of proteinases and amylases and the inhibitors of these enzymes in different biological objects.

A special probe with a 5-μm-diameter ball fixed at the end is developed for an atomic force microscope (AFM), with the use of which it is possible to obtain more correct values of the Young’s moduli of biological objects in liquid media and eliminate the risk of damaging the sample surface. In particular, the AFM measurements with this probe in situ revealed an increase in the Young’s modulus of rat blood vessel under the action of chlorhexidine.