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Long-term ecological monitoring is crucial to understanding the complex dynamics of ecosystems, communities, and populations. Despite this, monitoring data are lacking or rare for the vast majority of biodiversity. Here we report the results of 19 years (2003–2022) of continuous annual monitoring of reptile species at Booderee National Park (BNP) on the east coast of south-eastern Australia. We tested the effects of time, habitat type, fire, and climate on detections of five reptile species. Our study revealed declines in detections of two skink species over time (Lampropholis delicata and Ctenotus taeniolatus), which we suspect was partly driven by weather conditions influencing activity of these species. We also identified broad vegetation type associations for two congeneric species with L. delicata being associated with forested sites, and Lampropholis guichenoti associated with more shrubby sites. Our results also demonstrated a clear association between Cryptophis nigrescens and L. delicata and fire, with the probabilities of detection of both species decreasing with time since fire in the short term. At about the midway point of our study (in 2011), we were forced to make a change in the way our data were collected. The change heavily influenced our findings, and so breached the integrity of the time series in our dataset. We acknowledge that a simple but crucial step to mitigate this breach would have been to conduct calibration that allowed subsequent analysis to control for a change in field survey methodology. Whilst improvements in the effectiveness of field survey methods might be possible through new technologies, it is crucial to maintain the integrity of long-term datasets as data collection continues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Snakebite envenomation inflicts a high burden of mortality and morbidity in sub-Saharan Africa. Antivenoms are the mainstay in the therapy of envenomation, and there is an urgent need to develop antivenoms of broad neutralizing efficacy for this region. The venoms used as immunogens to manufacture snake antivenoms are normally selected considering their medical importance and availability. Additionally, their ability to induce antibody responses with high neutralizing capability should be considered, an issue that involves the immunization scheme and the animal species being immunized. Methodology/Principal findings: Using the lethality neutralization assay in mice, we compared the intrageneric neutralization scope of antisera generated by immunization of horses with monospecific, bispecific/monogeneric, and polyspecific/monogeneric immunogens formulated with venoms of Bitis spp., Echis spp., Dendroaspis spp., spitting Naja spp. or non-spitting Naja spp. It was found that the antisera raised by all the immunogens were able to neutralize the homologous venoms and, with a single exception, the heterologous congeneric venoms (considering spitting and non-spitting Naja separately). In general, the polyspecific antisera of Bitis spp, Echis spp, and Dendroaspis spp gave the best neutralization profile against venoms of these genera. For spitting Naja venoms, there were no significant differences in the neutralizing ability between monospecific, bispecific and polyspecific antisera. A similar result was obtained in the case of non-spitting Naja venoms, except that polyspecific antiserum was more effective against the venoms of N. melanoleuca and N. nivea as compared to the monospecific antiserum. Conclusions/Significance: The use of polyspecific immunogens is the best alternative to produce monogeneric antivenoms with wide neutralizing coverage against venoms of sub-Saharan African snakes of the Bitis, Echis, Naja (non-spitting) and Dendroaspis genera. On the other hand, a monospecific immunogen composed of venom of Naja nigricollis is suitable to produce a monogeneric antivenom with wide neutralizing coverage against venoms of spitting Naja spp. These findings can be used in the design of antivenoms of wide neutralizing scope for sub-Saharan Africa. Author summary: Parenteral administration of antivenoms is the core of the current treatment of snakebite envenomations, and there is an urgent need to produce antivenoms of wide neutralizing efficacy for sub-Saharan Africa. The active substance of antivenoms are antibodies (or antibody fragments) purified from plasma of horses or sheep immunized by the repeated injection of snake venoms. Generally, these antibodies can neutralize the venoms used as immunogens and other related venoms. Normally, the venoms used as immunogens are selected considering their medical importance and availability. To complement these criteria with information regarding the immunogenicity of venoms, we compared monospecific, bispecific/monogeneric, and polyspecific/monogeneric antisera towards venoms of Bitis spp., Echis spp., Dendroaspis spp., spitting Naja spp. or non-spitting Naja spp, regarding their intrageneric neutralization scope, evaluated by the lethality neutralization assay in mice. We found that the polyspecific antisera against venoms of Bitis spp, Echis spp, Dendroaspis spp, or non-spitting Naja gave the best neutralization profile. On the other hand, the monospecific, bispecific and polyspecific antisera towards venoms of spitting Naja venoms showed a similar performance. This information suggests that polyspecific immunogens could be the best alternative to produce antivenoms with the widest neutralizing coverage against sub-Saharan African snake venoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clinical assessment of body condition is crucial in captive and free-ranging reptiles, since a large percentage of diseases result from inadequate nutrition. However, preventive health care is restricted by the lack of a practical method for the assessment in tortoises. Pre-existing evaluation systems based on weight and shell measurements are laborious and ignore the clinical presentation of the animal. The present study aimed to facilitate the assessment by establishing a body condition score. A total of 373 Hermann's Tortoises (Testudo hermanni) (n = 281 tortoises kept as pets in Germany and n = 92 tortoises originating from a free-ranging population (68) or a rearing station (24) in France) were examined and data (weight (g), carapace length (cm), width (cm), height (cm)) were recorded in a standard protocol between October 2020 and October 2021. A modified version of a body condition score for Mojave Desert Tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) (1 = cachectic, 3 = ideal, 5 = obese) was utilized and tested against pre-existing shell measurement systems (Jackson's ratio, body condition index, volume condition index, circumferential product). German captive tortoises were significantly heavier and larger than French specimens. In the Spearman's correlation matrix, the body condition score showed a statistically significant correlation with all measurement methods in the total population of captive tortoises (Testudo hermanni boettgeri), with a medium correlation strength, and a lack of correlation in free-ranging tortoises (Testudo hermanni hermanni). However, individual animal data suggested misleading results of mathematical equations in terms of body condition. Clinical evaluation of tortoises, including a body condition score, should be considered essential to provide good healthcare and should be an integral part of general examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Giant ichthyosaurs with body length estimates exceeding 20 m were present in the latest Triassic of the UK. Here we report on the discovery of a second surangular from the lower jaw of a giant ichthyosaur from Somerset, UK. The new find is comparable in size and morphology to a specimen from Lilstock, Somerset, described in 2018, but it is more complete and better preserved. Both finds are from the uppermost Triassic Westbury Mudstone Formation (Rhaetian), but the new specimen comes from Blue Anchor, approximately 10 km west along the coast from Lilstock. The more complete surangular would have been >2 m long, from an individual with a body length estimated at ~25 m. The identification of two specimens with the same unique morphology and from the same geologic age and geographic location warrants the erection of a new genus and species, Ichthyotitan severnensis gen. et sp. nov. Thin sections of the new specimen revealed the same histological features already observed in similar giant ichthyosaurian specimens. Our data also supports the previous suggestion of an atypical osteogenesis in the lower jaws of giant ichthyosaurs. The geological age and giant size of the specimens suggest shastasaurid affinities, but the material is too incomplete for a definitive referral. Ichthyotitan severnensis gen. et sp. nov., is the first-named giant ichthyosaur from the Rhaetian and probably represents the largest marine reptile formally described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding behavior and its evolutionary underpinnings is crucial for unraveling the complexities of brain function. Traditional approaches strive to reduce behavioral complexity by designing short-term, highly constrained behavioral tasks with dichotomous choices in which animals respond to defined external perturbation. In contrast, natural behaviors evolve over multiple time scales during which actions are selected through bidirectional interactions with the environment and without human intervention. Recent technological advancements have opened up new possibilities for experimental designs that more closely mirror natural behaviors by replacing stringent experimental control with accurate multidimensional behavioral analysis. However, these approaches have been tailored to fit only a small number of species. This specificity limits the experimental opportunities offered by species diversity. Further, it hampers comparative analyses that are essential for extracting overarching behavioral principles and for examining behavior from an evolutionary perspective. To address this limitation, we developed ReptiLearn—a versatile, low-cost, Python-based solution, optimized for conducting automated long-term experiments in the home cage of reptiles, without human intervention. In addition, this system offers unique features such as precise temperature measurement and control, live prey reward dispensers, engagement with touch screens, and remote control through a user-friendly web interface. Finally, ReptiLearn incorporates low-latency closed-loop feedback allowing bidirectional interactions between animals and their environments. Thus, ReptiLearn provides a comprehensive solution for researchers studying behavior in ectotherms and beyond, bridging the gap between constrained laboratory settings and natural behavior in nonconventional model systems. We demonstrate the capabilities of ReptiLearn by automatically training the lizard Pogona vitticeps on a complex spatial learning task requiring association learning, displaced reward learning, and reversal learning. Methods used for quantitative behavioral research are geared towards traditional model systems, hindering comparative research and limiting diversity. This study describes a versatile platform for studying natural behaviors in reptiles across multiple time scales and with minimally constrained conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To protect biodiversity we must understand its structure and composition including the bacteria and microparasites associated with wildlife, which may pose risks to human health. However, acquiring this knowledge often presents challenges, particularly in areas of high biodiversity where there are many undescribed and poorly studied species and funding resources can be limited. A solution to fill this knowledge gap is sampling roadkill (animals that die on roads as a result of collisions with circulating vehicles). These specimens can help characterize local wildlife and their associated parasites with fewer ethical and logistical challenges compared to traditional specimen collection. Here we test this approach by analyzing 817 tissue samples obtained from 590 roadkill vertebrate specimens (Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia) collected in roads within the Tropical Andes of Ecuador. First, we tested if the quantity and quality of recovered DNA varied across roadkill specimens collected at different times since death, exploring if decomposition affected the potential to identify vertebrate species and associated microorganisms. Second, we compared DNA stability across taxa and tissues to identify potential limitations and offer recommendations for future work. Finally, we illustrate how these samples can aid in taxonomic identification and parasite detection. Our study shows that sampling roadkill can help study biodiversity. DNA was recovered and amplified (allowing species identification and parasite detection) from roadkill even 120 hours after death, although risk of degradation increased overtime. DNA was extracted from all vertebrate classes but in smaller quantities and with lower quality from amphibians. We recommend sampling liver if possible as it produced the highest amounts of DNA (muscle produced the lowest). Additional testing of this approach in areas with different environmental and traffic conditions is needed, but our results show that sampling roadkill specimens can help detect and potentially monitor biodiversity and could be a valuable approach to create biobanks and preserve genetic data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Locating potential mates in non-native habitats is one of the most important challenges faced by invasive vertebrate species. The Argentine black and white tegu lizard (Salvator merianae) is a major invasive reptile species in the contiguous United States and is rapidly expanding its range across Florida and the Southeast, in part due to inadequate management strategies and tools. Because a wide array of reptiles, especially squamates (snakes and lizards), have been well-studied for their reliance on chemical cues to locate conspecifics, our project aimed to isolate chemical cues from tegus and assess the ability of adult males and females to use only these cues to make navigation decisions within a Y-maze. Previously, we found that both males and females can follow conspecific scent trails, but the nature of the specific cues used by the tegus was unknown. In this study, we extracted skin lipids from male and female shed skins acquired during the breeding season then tested the extracts for bioactivity at different dilutions prior to Y-maze trials. Both sexes showed positive reactions (e.g., tongue-flicking, nose taps, scratching) to 2:1 skin lipid:hexane dilutions. In the Y-maze, males (n = 7) and females (n = 7) were run in three types of trailing scenarios with these skin lipid extracts: Male-only (pooled lipid extracts from male shed skins), Female-only (extracts from female shed skins), and Male vs. female. Regardless of the tegu lipid type present, tegus preferred to follow the conspecific lipid trail when paired with a neutral control (peanut oil; 2:1 dilution). They also preferred opposite-sex skin lipid trails when paired with same-sex skin lipid trails. We analyzed our results further by comparing them to those of Richard, Bukovich, et al. (2020). We found a synchronization effect of the skin lipids: sex differences in behavior detectable in the scent trail trials were absent when only conspecific skin lipids were present in the environment. Our results indicate that skin lipids alone are sufficient to facilitate mate tracking in S. merianae, these chemical cues induce reliable behavior, and extracted skin lipids have potential for modifying movement patterns of an invasive reptile in their non-native range. If leveraged in concert with current tegu management strategies (i.e., trapping), extracted skin lipids have the potential to bolster management efficacy but field trials are a requisite next step. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite their extremely rare and fragmentary record, aquatic crocodylomorphs from the Middle to Upper Jurassic (Bajocian-Tithonian) Rosso Ammonitico Veronese (RAV) of northeastern Italy have sparked interest since the late 18th century. Among marine reptiles, Thalattosuchia is by far one of the best represented groups from the RAV units, especially in the Middle Jurassic. Although some specimens have been the subject of multiple studies in recent times, most of them still lack precise stratigraphic assignment and taphonomic assessment, while others remain undescribed. Here we provide a comprehensive revision of the thalattosuchian record from the RAV, alongside the most up-to-date age determination, by means of calcareous nannofossils, when available. Three new metriorhynchoid specimens are described for the first time from the Middle Jurassic of Asiago Plateau (Vicenza province). While the taphonomy of the newly described specimens hampers any taxonomic attribution below superfamily/family level, all three were confidently assigned to a precise interval between the upper Bajocian and the upper Bathonian. This revised record has major paleobiogeographical implications: the new specimens confirm an early origin and distribution of Metriorhynchoidea in the Tethys area and suggest a fast colonization of the open-ocean environment since the upper Bajocian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reptiles are an important part of the vertebrate fauna in the temperate woodlands of south-eastern Australia. However, compared to birds and mammals, the long-term occurrence of reptiles across woodland growth types–old growth, regrowth, and replantings–remains poorly understood. Here, using 18-years of data gathered at 218 sites across 1.5 million hectares in New South Wales South West Slopes bioregion, we sought to quantify patterns of temporal change in reptile occurrence and determine if such changes varied between woodland growth types. Despite extensive sampling, almost 75% of our 6341 surveys produced no detections of reptiles. Significant survey effort exceeding 2000 surveys was needed over a prolonged period of time to record detections of 26 reptile species in our study area. Our analyses showed a temporal increase in estimated reptile species richness and abundance over 18 years. Such increases characterized all three vegetation structural types we surveyed. At the individual species level, we had sufficient data to construct models for five of the 26 species recorded. Three of these species were least commonly detected in replantings, whereas the remaining two were most often detected in replantings relative to old growth and regrowth woodland. We found evidence of a temporal increase in two skink species, a decline in one gecko species, and no change in the remaining two skink species. Although detections were consistently low, active searches were the best survey method, and we suggest using this method in habitats known to be hotspots for reptiles, such as rocky outcrops, if the aim is to maximize the number of individuals and species detected. Our findings highlight the value of all three broad vegetation structure types in contributing to woodland reptile biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world-famous markets of Marrakech, also known in Arabic as souks, harbor a vast diversity of reptiles that are sold for medicinal/magic/pet purposes or used for snake charming. This unique epidemiological context has never been studied considering the interactions of humans, reptiles, and zoonotic pathogens. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify the parasites and pathogens present in blood and feces associated with handled reptiles in the markets of Marrakech to assess the risk of zoonotic transmission within the reptile-human interface. Privately owned reptiles (n = 118), coming from vendors or snake charmers, were examined and blood and feces sampled. DNA was extracted and molecular screening (cPCR, nPCR, qPCR, dqPCR) was performed aiming to identify potentially zoonotic pathogens (i.e., Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Coxiella burnetii, Babesia/Theileria spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Leishmania spp., Cestoda). Overall, 28.9% (34/118) of reptiles were positive for at least one pathogen. In blood, Anaplasma spp. were detected in four snakes, with two Montpellier snakes positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, while Rickettsia spp. were detected in one Mediterranean chameleon and four puff adders. Leishmania tarentolae was molecularly detected in a Mediterranean chameleon and a Montpellier snake. In feces, the cox1 gene generated a myriad of sequences for nematodes, cestodes, fungi and bacteria. Importantly, Proteus vulgaris was identified from a Mediterranean chameleon. Cryptosporidium spp. nPCR yielded a positive sample (i.e., Cryptosporidium sp. apodemus genotype I) from a Moroccan worm lizard, as well as for bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an Egyptian cobra, and Morganella morganii from a puff adder. Results from this study demonstrated the risk of zoonotic transmission of microorganisms and parasites present in blood and feces from reptiles that are brought to the souks in Marrakech, Morocco, to be sold for medicinal purposes or used for snake charming, being in direct and straight contact with humans. Author summary: The world-famous Marrakech souks (markets) are a unique and scarcely studied context where reptiles are in constant contact with humans and used for traditional medicine or for the ancient craft of snake charming. Hence, we aimed to identify the pathogens present in blood and feces of reptiles kept in the markets of Marrakech to assess the zoonotic risk. Animals from vendors or snake charmers were sampled. DNA was extracted and molecularly screened to identify potentially zoonotic pathogens. Overall, 28.9% of reptiles were positive for at least one pathogen. Importantly, we detected Anaplasma spp. from four snakes, Rickettsia spp. from Mediterranean chameleons and puff adders, and Leishmania tarentolae from snakes and chameleons. On the other hand, zoonotic bacteria such Proteus vulgaris were identified from a Mediterranean chameleon, Pseudomonas aeruginosa from Egyptian cobra, and Morganella morganii from puff adder. Thus, reptiles that are kept in the souks of Marrakech may play a role in the zoonotic transmission of pathogens and parasites, given the constant contact with humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The initial stages of diapsid evolution, the clade that includes extant reptiles and the majority of extinct reptilian taxa, is surprisingly poorly known. Notwithstanding the hypothesis that varanopids are diapsids rather than synapsids, there are only four araeoscelidians and one neodiapsid present in the late Carboniferous and early Permian. Here we describe the fragmentary remains of a very unusual new amniote from the famous cave deposits near Richards Spur, Oklahoma, that we recognize as a diapsid reptile, readily distinguishable from all other early amniotes by the unique dentition and lower jaw anatomy. The teeth have an unusual reeding pattern on the crown (long parallel ridges with rounded surfaces), with some teeth posteriorly tilted and strongly recurved, while a ventral protuberance forms the anterior terminus of the dentary. Overall, the lower jaw is unusually slender with a flattened ventral surface formed by the dentary and splenial anteriorly and the angular in the mid-region. The presence of a very slender triradiate jugal revealed through computed tomography confirms the existence of a large lower temporal fenestra, while the medial edge of the maxilla and the anatomy of the palatine confirm the presence of a large suborbital fenestra. Computed tomography of this new taxon reveals maxillary innervation that is characteristically reptile, not synapsid. Although no other definitively identifiable skull roof elements exist, the suborbital fenestra borders preserved on the palatine and maxilla supports the hypothesis that this is a diapsid reptile. Interestingly, the right dentary shows evidence of pathology, a rarely reported occurrence in Paleozoic amniotes, with several empty tooth sockets filled by bone. This small predator with delicate subthecodont implanted dentition provides strong evidence that diapsid reptiles were already diversifying rapidly in the early Permian, but likely were relatively rare members of terrestrial vertebrate assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The trypanosomatid protist Leishmania tarentolae is a saurian-associated parasite vectored by the Sergentomyia minuta sand fly. This study aimed to confirm the circulation of L. infantum and L. tarentolae in sand flies, reptiles and dogs and to isolate new strains of these protists. Reptilian and sheltered dog blood samples were collected, and sand flies were captured. Samples were tested for Leishmania spp. using duplex real-time PCR (dqPCR) and real-time PCR (qPCR); the origin of blood meal was identified in engorged sand flies by conventional PCR. The reptilian blood and intestinal content of sand fly females were cultured. Dog sera were tested by IFAT using both Leishmania species. Four Tarentola mauritanica geckoes were molecularly positive for L. infantum or L. tarentolae, with no co-infections; moreover, amastigote-like forms of L. infantum were observed in the bone marrow. 24/294 sand flies scored positive for Leishmania spp. by dqPCR, 21 S. minuta and two Phlebotomus perniciosus were positive for L. tarentolae, while only a single Ph. perniciosus was positive for L. infantum. Blood meal analysis confirmed reptile and dog in S. minuta, dog and human in Ph. perniciosus and dog in Phlebotomus neglectus. Two axenic strains of L. tarentolae were obtained. Twelve of 19 dogs scored positive for L. infantum and L. tarentolae by IFAT and three of them also for L. infantum by dqPCR, and six by qPCR. These data confirm the sympatric circulation of L. infantum and L. tarentolae in geckoes, sand flies, and dogs, and suggest that geckoes may be infected with L. infantum. Author summary: Leishmania tarentolae is a saurian-associated parasite recently reported in geographical areas where Leishmania infantum is endemic. To confirm the circulation of both protists in sand flies, reptiles and dogs and to isolate new Leishmania spp. strains, reptilian and sheltered dog blood samples were collected and sand flies captured. Samples were molecularly tested for Leishmania spp. and sandflies for origin of blood meal. Dog sera were tested by IFAT for both Leishmania species and reptilian blood and intestine of sand flies were cultured. Four Tarentola mauritanica geckoes were positive for L. infantum or L. tarentolae; moreover, amastigote-like forms of L. infantum were observed in the bone marrow. 24/294 sand flies scored PCR positive for Leishmania spp. Reptile and dog blood were found in S. minuta, dog and human in Ph. perniciosus and dog in Phlebotomus neglectus. Two axenic strains of L. tarentolae were obtained. Twelve of 19 dogs scored positive for L. infantum and L. tarentolae by IFAT and three of them also for L. infantum by PCR, and six by qPCR. Data confirm the sympatric circulation of L. infantum and L. tarentolae in geckoes, sand flies, and dogs, and suggest that geckoes may be infected with L. infantum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Captive environments trigger the propagation and multiplication of parasites among different reptile species, thus weakening their immune response and causing infections and diseases. Technological advances of convolutional neural networks have opened a new field for detecting and classifying diseases which have shown great potential to overcome the shortcomings of manual detection performed by experts. Therefore, we propose an approach to identify six captive reptiles parasitic agents (Ophionyssus natricis, Blastocystis sp, Oxiurdo egg, Rhytidoides similis, Strongyloides, Taenia) or the absence of such parasites from a microscope stool images dataset. Towards this end, we first use an image segmentation stage to detect the parasite within the image, which combines the Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE) technique, the OTSU binarization method, and morphological operations. Then, we carry out a classification stage through MobileNet CNN under a transfer learning scheme. This method was validated on a stool image dataset containing 3616 images data samples and 26 videos from the six parasites mentioned above. The results obtained indicate that our transfer learning-based approach can learn a helpful representation from the dataset. We obtained an average accuracy of 94.26% across the seven classes (i.e., six parasitic agents and the absence of parasites), which statistically outperformed, at a 95% confidence level, a custom CNN trained from scratch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological invasions are considered the second major cause of plant, amphibian, reptile, and mammal loss worldwide. Like islands, freshwater ecosystems are especially susceptible to the negative impacts of invasions. The porthole livebearer (Poeciliopsis gracilis), recently identified as invasive in the Mexican Central Plateau, is increasing its populations and could impact freshwater ecosystems like its cousin species the guppy (Poecilia reticulata). Risk-taking behaviours, such as emergence latency, are recognised as key characteristics to invasion success and Poeciliid females can establish a viable population by themselves (due to their multiple paternity broods). We investigated the emergence latency and latency to locate food in simple and complex environments of porthole livebearers, including the effect of their size and sex. For both sexes, bigger fish emerge less times and take longer to do so, but females are faster to exit the refuge than males. We found no differences in porthole livebearer's behaviour in complex or simple habitats, and no significant differences between sex, size or treatment in the time to locate food after exiting the refuge. Our results suggest that the benefit of faster emergence from the refuge in porthole livebearers in novel environments could be higher for females. We consider that porthole livebearer females being bolder could contribute to the invasion success of the species. Our study points at females and smaller fish as being the more likely to explore novel environments, which could contribute to understanding how the invasions by the porthole livebearer are driven. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Red List of Threatened Species, published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), is a crucial tool for conservation decision-making. However, despite substantial effort, numerous species remain unassessed or have insufficient data available to be assigned a Red List extinction risk category. Moreover, the Red Listing process is subject to various sources of uncertainty and bias. The development of robust automated assessment methods could serve as an efficient and highly useful tool to accelerate the assessment process and offer provisional assessments. Here, we aimed to (1) present a machine learning–based automated extinction risk assessment method that can be used on less known species; (2) offer provisional assessments for all reptiles—the only major tetrapod group without a comprehensive Red List assessment; and (3) evaluate potential effects of human decision biases on the outcome of assessments. We use the method presented here to assess 4,369 reptile species that are currently unassessed or classified as Data Deficient by the IUCN. The models used in our predictions were 90% accurate in classifying species as threatened/nonthreatened, and 84% accurate in predicting specific extinction risk categories. Unassessed and Data Deficient reptiles were considerably more likely to be threatened than assessed species, adding to mounting evidence that these species warrant more conservation attention. The overall proportion of threatened species greatly increased when we included our provisional assessments. Assessor identities strongly affected prediction outcomes, suggesting that assessor effects need to be carefully considered in extinction risk assessments. Regions and taxa we identified as likely to be more threatened should be given increased attention in new assessments and conservation planning. Lastly, the method we present here can be easily implemented to help bridge the assessment gap for other less known taxa. The Red List of Threatened Species, published by the IUCN, is a crucial tool for conservation decision making, but is subject to various sources of uncertainty and bias. Modelling the threat status of all global reptiles identifies increased threat to many groups of reptiles across many regions of the world, beyond those currently recognized; moreover, it highlights the effects of the IUCN assessment procedure on eventual threat categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although relationships between intestinal morphology between trophic groups in reptiles are widely assumed and represent a cornerstone of ecomorphological narratives, few comparative approaches actually tested this hypothesis on a larger scale. We collected data on lengths of intestinal sections of 205 reptile species for which either body mass (BM), snout-vent-length (SVL) or carapax length (CL) was recorded, transforming SVL or CL into BM if the latter was not given, and analyzed scaling patterns with BM and SVL, accounting for phylogeny, comparing three trophic guilds (faunivores, omnivores, herbivores), and comparing with a mammal dataset. Length-BM relationships in reptiles were stronger for the small than the large intestine, suggesting that for the latter, additional factors might be relevant. Adding trophic level did not consistently improve model fit; only when controlling for phylogeny, models indicated a longer large intestine in herbivores, due to a corresponding pattern in lizards. Trophic level effects were highly susceptible to sample sizes, and not considered strong. Models that linked BM to intestine length had better support than models using SVL, due to the deviating body shape of snakes. At comparable BM, reptiles had shorter intestines than mammals. While the latter finding corresponds to findings of lower tissue masses for the digestive tract and other organs in reptiles as well as our understanding of differences in energetic requirements between the classes, they raise the hitherto unanswered question what it is that reptiles of similar BM have more than mammals. A lesser effect of trophic level on intestine lengths in reptiles compared to mammals may stem from lesser selective pressures on differentiation between trophic guilds, related to the generally lower food intake and different movement patterns of reptiles, which may not similarly escalate evolutionary arms races tuned to optimal agility as between mammalian predators and prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The squamates (lizards and snakes) are close relatives of birds and mammals, with more than 10,000 described species that display extensive variation in a number of important biological traits, including coloration, venom production, and regeneration. Due to a lack of genomic tools, few genetic studies in squamates have been carried out. The leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius, is a popular companion animal, and displays a variety of coloration patterns. We took advantage of a large breeding colony and used linkage analysis, synteny, and homozygosity mapping to investigate a spontaneous semi-dominant mutation, "Lemon Frost", that produces white coloration and causes skin tumors (iridophoroma). We localized the mutation to a single locus which contains a strong candidate gene, SPINT1, a tumor suppressor implicated in human skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) and over-proliferation of epithelial cells in mice and zebrafish. Our work establishes the leopard gecko as a tractable genetic system and suggests that a tumor suppressor in melanocytes in humans can also suppress tumor development in iridophores in lizards. Author summary: The squamates (lizards and snakes) comprise a diverse group of reptiles, with more than 10,000 described species that display extensive variation in a number of important biological traits, including coloration. In this manuscript, we used quantitative genetics and genomics to map the mutation underlying white coloration in the Lemon Frost morph of the common leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius. Lemon Frost geckos have increased white body coloration with brightened yellow and orange areas. This morph also displays a high incidence of iridophoroma, a tumor of white-colored cells. We obtained phenotype information and DNA samples from geckos in a large breeding colony and used genome sequencing and genetic linkage analysis to localize the Lemon Frost mutation to a single locus. This locus contains a strong candidate gene, SPINT1, a tumor suppressor implicated in human skin cutaneous melanoma. Together with other recent advances, our work brings reptiles into the modern genetics era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global biodiversity loss is a profound consequence of human activity. Disturbingly, biodiversity loss is greater than realized because of the unknown number of undocumented species. Conservation fundamentally relies on taxonomic recognition of species, but only a fraction of biodiversity is described. Here, we provide a new quantitative approach for prioritizing rigorous taxonomic research for conservation. We implement this approach in a highly diverse vertebrate group—Australian lizards and snakes. Of 870 species assessed, we identified 282 (32.4%) with taxonomic uncertainty, of which 17.6% likely comprise undescribed species of conservation concern. We identify 24 species in need of immediate taxonomic attention to facilitate conservation. Using a broadly applicable return-on-investment framework, we demonstrate the importance of prioritizing the fundamental work of identifying species before they are lost. In order to inform conservation effort, there is urgent need for rigorous taxonomic research to describe species under threat of extinction. Implementation of a new prioritization method identified 282 Australian reptile species needing taxonomic research, of which 17.6% represent undescribed species of conservation concern; this approach could be readily implemented across many faunal groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How temperature determines sex remains unknown. A recent hypothesis proposes that conserved cellular mechanisms (calcium and redox; 'CaRe' status) sense temperature and identify genes and regulatory pathways likely to be involved in driving sexual development. We take advantage of the unique sex determining system of the model organism, Pogona vitticeps, to assess predictions of this hypothesis. P. vitticeps has ZZ male: ZW female sex chromosomes whose influence can be overridden in genetic males by high temperatures, causing male-to-female sex reversal. We compare a developmental transcriptome series of ZWf females and temperature sex reversed ZZf females. We demonstrate that early developmental cascades differ dramatically between genetically driven and thermally driven females, later converging to produce a common outcome (ovaries). We show that genes proposed as regulators of thermosensitive sex determination play a role in temperature sex reversal. Our study greatly advances the search for the mechanisms by which temperature determines sex. Author summary: In many reptiles and fish, environment can determine, or influence, the sex of developing embryos. How this happens at a molecular level that has eluded resolution for half a century of intensive research. We studied the bearded dragon, a lizard that has sex chromosomes (ZZ male and ZW female), but in which that temperature can override ZZ sex chromosomes to cause male to female sex reversal. This provides an unparalleled opportunity to disentangle, in the same species, the biochemical pathways required to make a female by these two different routes. We sequenced the transcriptomes of gonads from developing ZZ reversed and normal ZW dragon embryos and discovered that different sets of genes are active in ovary development driven by genotype or temperature. Females whose sex was initiated by temperature showed a transcriptional profile consistent with the recently-proposed Calcium-Redox hypotheses of cellular temperature sensing. These findings are an important for understanding how the environment influences the development of sex, and more generally how the environment can epigenetically modify the action of genes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The inhibitory signaling of CD200 receptor 1 (CD200R) has been attributed to its NPxY signaling motif. However, NPxY-motifs are present in multiple protein families and are mostly known to mediate protein trafficking between subcellular locations rather than signaling. Therefore, we investigated whether additional motifs specify the inhibitory function of CD200R. We performed phylogenetic analysis of the intracellular domain of CD200R in mammals, birds, bony fish, amphibians and reptiles. Indeed, the tyrosine of the NPxY-motif is fully conserved across species, in line with its central role in CD200R signaling. In contrast, P295 of the NPxY-motif is not conserved. Instead, a conserved stretch of negatively charged amino acids, EEDE279, and two conserved residues P285 and K292 in the flanking region prior to the NPxY-motif are required for CD200R mediated inhibition of p-Erk, p-Akt308, p-Akt473, p-rpS6 and LPS-induced IL-8 secretion. Altogether, we show that instead of the more common NPxY-motif, CD200R signaling can be assigned to a unique signaling motif in mammals defined by: EEDExxPYxxYxxKxNxxY. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vocalization in mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians occurs with airways that have wide openings to free-space for efficient sound radiations, but sound is also produced with occluded or semi-occluded airways that have small openings to free-space. It is hypothesized that pressures produced inside the airway with semi-occluded vocalizations have an overall widening effect on the airway. This overall widening then provides more opportunity to produce wide-narrow contrasts along the airway for variation in sound quality and loudness. For human vocalization described here, special emphasis is placed on the epilaryngeal airway, which can be adjusted for optimal aerodynamic power transfer and for optimal acoustic source-airway interaction. The methodology is three-fold, (1) geometric measurement of airway dimensions from CT scans, (2) aerodynamic and acoustic impedance calculation of the airways, and (3) simulation of acoustic signals with a self-oscillating computational model of the sound source and wave propagation. Author summary: Humans and animals communicate vocally. For mammals, birds, and reptiles that breathe with lungs, a source of sound is embedded in the airways, somewhere between the lungs and the lips or beak. When the mouth or beak is open, sound radiates into free-space to be received by listeners. The wider the opening, the more sound is released from the airway. However, for centuries those who teach efficient voice production have encouraged their clients to practice with a nearly closed mouth, therefore partially occluding the airway. In the animal world, doves, frogs, and gerbils vocalize with completely closed airways, allowing the sound to radiate from vibrating skin surfaces instead of airway openings. It is shown here that by keeping most of the sound inside the body and widening the throat by vocalizing into a narrow tube at the mouth, the sound source can become more efficient. By controlling the airspace in the larynx directly above the vocal cords, an area known as the epilaryngeal airway, this efficiency can be maintained when the mouth is opened after practice. A large variety of sound qualities and a louder voice are thereby facilitated without a significant effect on vowel production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine, for the first time, biogeographic patterns in a series of tropical montane coastal systems in northern South America. We use amphibians and reptiles, which constitute the most critical communities based upon the prevalence of endemic taxa, to assess the region's biodiversity. The montane coastal system spans an east-west distance of 925 km. It includes peaks ranging from 549 m to 2765 m above sea level and encompasses the montane complexes of northern Venezuela (including Isla de Margarita), an outlier at Santa Marta (Colombia), and ranges on the islands Trinidad and Tobago. The area supports 14 family level amphibian clades and 23 family level reptile clades. Fieldwork, museum specimen surveys, and a literature review suggest that biodiversity decreases at higher elevations. Here we examine the biogeographic patterns in the region to assess the role of the montane systems as possible refugia. We also look at the possible island and sky island effects using data from altitudes >200 m. At lower elevations, we tabulated 294 species, comprising 112 amphibians and 182 reptiles. About 45% of these taxa are endemic or exclusive to different sub-regions. At mid-elevation montane cloud forests, we find a much-reduced biodiversity with a total of 125 species (66 amphibians and 59 reptiles) exclusive or restricted to the region, and few species shared between systems. We find that biogeographical patterns follow a natural topographic disposition above 200 m in elevations. At the lower elevation cut off, there are 118 species (26 amphibians and 92 reptiles) shared among two or more of the studied mountain systems, suggesting a common origin and dispersal events, despite what seem to be topographic barriers. Biogeographical relationships support a topographic disposition of the region with close associations between the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, the Paria Range and the Turimiquire Massif, and close associations between the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Sierra de San Luis. Overall, the biogeographic relationships between amphibians and reptiles are similar. Species diversity in the eastern Caribbean region is less rich than in the west. This study includes the first herpetological surveys at the two easternmost mountains (Cerro La Cerbatana and Campeare) belonging to the Paria Range biogeographic unit, and aims to contribute to a better understanding of the rich biodiversity of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed the presence of Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in reptiles, their ectoparasites and in questing ticks collected in a nature preserve park in southern Italy, as well as in a peri-urban area in another region. We also investigated the exposure to these pathogens in forestry workers, farmers and livestock breeders living or working in the nature preserve park given the report of anecdotal cases of spotted fever rickettsioses. Rickettsia spp. were molecularly detected in Podarcis muralis and Podarcis siculus lizards (i.e., 3.1%), in Ixodes ricinus (up to 87.5%) and in Neotrombicula autumnalis (up to 8.3%) collected from them as well as in I. ricinus collected from the environment (up to 28.4%). Rickettsia monacensis was the most prevalent species followed by Rickettsia helvetica. An undescribed member of the family Anaplasmataceae was detected in 2.4% and 0.8% of the reptiles and ectoparasites, respectively. Sera from human subjects (n = 50) were serologically screened and antibodies to Rickettsia spp. (n = 4; 8%), C. burnetti (n = 8; 16%) and A. phagocytophilum (n = 11; 22%) were detected. Two ticks collected from two forestry workers were positive for spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae. Ixodes ricinus is involved in the transmission of SFG rickettsiae (R. monacensis and R. helvetica) in southern Europe and lizards could play a role in the sylvatic cycle of R. monacensis, as amplifying hosts. Meanwhile, N. autumnalis could be involved in the enzootic cycle of some SFG rickettsiae among these animals. People living or working in the southern Italian nature preserve park investigated are exposed to SFG rickettsiae, C. burnetii and A. phagocytophilum. Author summary: Zoonotic pathogens such as Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii and Anaplasma phagocytophilum are associated with ticks, lice, fleas and mites and may infect a wide range of vertebrate species. There are still many knowledge gaps concerning the arthropod vectors and amplifying hosts of these pathogens. Reptiles are known to host infected ticks with these zoonotic pathogens and eventually become infected themselves by these bacteria. Hence to address this question from a broad One-Health perspective, we assessed the molecular prevalence of Rickettsia spp., C. burnetii and A. phagocytophilum in reptiles, ticks and mites from both hosts and environment and seroprevalence in humans living or working near the same area. Rickettsia DNA was detected in lizards' tails, Ixodes ricinus ticks and in Neotrombicula autumnalis mites collected from them and in questing ticks. Although DNA of C. burnetii and A. phagocytophilum was not detected in lizards and their ectoparasites, sera samples of human subjects tested positive for the antibodies against these zoonotic pathogens. These findings indicate the epidemiological role of lizards in spreading SFG rickettsiae as well as I. ricinus, and hence representing a potential public health concern in geographical areas where lizards, ticks and humans share the same environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lyme disease is common in the northeastern United States, but rare in the southeast, even though the tick vector is found in both regions. Infection prevalence of Lyme spirochetes in host-seeking ticks, an important component to the risk of Lyme disease, is also high in the northeast and northern midwest, but declines sharply in the south. As ticks must acquire Lyme spirochetes from infected vertebrate hosts, the role of wildlife species composition on Lyme disease risk has been a topic of lively academic discussion. We compared tick–vertebrate host interactions using standardized sampling methods among 8 sites scattered throughout the eastern US. Geographical trends in diversity of tick hosts are gradual and do not match the sharp decline in prevalence at southern sites, but tick–host associations show a clear shift from mammals in the north to reptiles in the south. Tick infection prevalence declines north to south largely because of high tick infestation of efficient spirochete reservoir hosts (rodents and shrews) in the north but not in the south. Minimal infestation of small mammals in the south results from strong selective attachment to lizards such as skinks (which are inefficient reservoirs for Lyme spirochetes) in the southern states. Selective host choice, along with latitudinal differences in tick host-seeking behavior and variations in tick densities, explains the geographic pattern of Lyme disease in the eastern US. Lyme disease is common in the northeastern United States, but rare in the southeast, even though the tick vector is found in both regions. This study shows that this is largely because the tick vectors attach abundantly to rodents (which are good hosts for the Lyme bacteria) in the north, and to lizards (which are relatively poor hosts for Lyme bacteria) in the south. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife tourism attractions (WTA) are popular in the United States, but they may be harmful to the individual animals involved and we question whether they provide benefits to environmental conservation. Most research on the welfare and environmental implications of WTAs focuses on charismatic mammals, with few studies investigating these issues for reptiles. Here we examine alligator wrestling, including its impact on animal welfare and environmental conservation. Using a sample of 94 relevant YouTube videos of alligator wrestling in Florida representing 16 different venues, we coded the environmental and behavioral characteristics evident in each video. We then performed a content analysis of wrestlers' narration in a subset of 51 videos to analyze the environmental awareness and educational components of alligator wrestling. Our results show systemic welfare harm: 11 venues housed adult alligators together with conspecifics, 96% of alligator wrestling performances facilitated direct contact in the form of physical restraint by one or more human wrestlers, and as many as 96% of the videos did not show a suitable water or waterside features for captive alligators. Furthermore, 12% of performances showed wrestlers flipping alligators onto their backs while 16% showed wrestlers tying alligators' jaws shut, both of which are known to be acute stressors. Finally, just under half of alligator wrestling commentary (49%) addressed environmental conservation topics, and much of this commentary included contradictory or misleading information that is not likely to benefit alligators in the wild. We argue that alligator wrestling serves no role in promoting positive relationships between humans, animals, and the environment, and instead furthers traditional notions of dominion that undermine welfare and conservation aims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Bacterial pathogens are often involved in dermatitis in reptiles. Exact identification of reptile-specific but otherwise uncommon bacterial species may be challenging. However, identification is crucial to evaluate the importance of the detected bacterial species. Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the number of aerobic bacterial isolates cultured from skin-derived samples of reptiles which were not reliably identified by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), and to determine their identity. Material and methods: Routine bacterial diagnostics were performed on 235 skin samples, and 417 bacterial isolates were analysed by MALDI-TOF MS. The isolates were grouped into categories based on their first score: category I (≥ 2.00), category II (≥ 1.70 and < 2.00), and category III (< 1.70). Isolates from category III were further investigated by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and the following criteria were applied: query cover 100%, e-value rounded to 0.0 and sequence identity (%) > 98.00% for genus identification, and > 99.00% for species identification. Results: The majority of bacterial isolates were in category I (85.1%) or category II (8.4%). In category III (6.5%) results achieved at first by MALDI-TOF MS corresponded to the results of the molecular analysis in 8.0% of isolates at the species level and in 24.0% at the genus level. Bacterial isolates classified as category III were heterogenic in genus (e.g. Chryseobacterium, Devriesea, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Uruburuella), and some have only been described in reptiles so far. Conclusions: Most of the aerobic bacterial isolates cultured from reptile skin achieved high scores by MALDI-TOF MS. However, in the majority of category III isolates MALDI-TOF MS results were different from those of the molecular analysis. This strengthens the need to carefully examine low-scored results for plausibility and to be familiar with the occurrence and morphology of relevant reptile-specific bacterial species (e.g. Devriesea agamarum) as well as with the limits of the database used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of carbon dioxide (CO2) exposure as a means of animal euthanasia has received considerable attention in mammals and birds but remains virtually untested in reptiles. We measured the behavioral responses of four squamate reptile species (Homalopsis buccata, Malayopython reticulatus, Python bivitattus, and Varanus salvator) to exposure to 99.5% CO2 for durations of 15, 30, or 90 minutes. We also examined alterations in plasma corticosterone levels of M. reticulatus and V. salvator before and after 15 minutes of CO2 exposure relative to control individuals. The four reptile taxa showed consistent behavioral responses to CO2 exposure characterized by gaping and minor movements. The time taken to lose responsiveness to stimuli and cessation of movements varied between 240–4260 seconds (4–71 minutes), with considerable intra- and inter-specific variation. Duration of CO2 exposure influenced the likelihood of recovery, which also varied among species (e.g., from 0–100% recovery after 30-min exposure). Plasma corticosterone concentrations increased after CO2 exposure in both V. salvator (18%) and M. reticulatus (14%), but only significantly in the former species. Based on our results, CO2 appears to be a mild stressor for reptiles, but the relatively minor responses to CO2 suggest it may not cause considerable distress or pain. However, our results are preliminary, and further testing is required to understand optimal CO2 delivery mechanisms and interspecific responses to CO2 exposure before endorsing this method for reptile euthanasia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the discovery of two very early, basal-amniote fossil trackways on the same bedding plane in eolian sandstone of the Pennsylvanian Manakacha Formation in Grand Canyon, Arizona. Trackway 1, which is Chelichnus-like, we interpret to be a shallow undertrackway. It displays a distinctive, sideways-drifting, footprint pattern not previously documented in a tetrapod trackway. We interpret this pattern to record the trackmaker employing a lateral-sequence gait while diagonally ascending a slope of about 20°, thereby reducing the steepness of the ascent. Trackway 2 consists only of aligned sets of claw marks. We interpret this trackway to be a deeper undertrackway, made some hours or days later, possibly by an animal that was conspecific with Trackmaker 1, while walking directly up the slope at a speed of approximately 0.1 m/sec. These trackways are the first tetrapod tracks reported from the Manakacha Formation and the oldest in the Grand Canyon region. The narrow width of both trackways indicates that both trackmakers had relatively small femoral abduction angles and correspondingly relatively erect postures. They represent the earliest known occurrence of dunefield-dwelling amniotes―either basal reptiles or basal synapsids―thereby extending the known utilization of the desert biome by amniotes, as well as the presence of the Chelichnus ichnofacies, by at least eight million years, into the Atokan/Moscovian Age of the Pennsylvanian Epoch. The depositional setting was a coastal-plain, eolian dunefield in which tidal or wadi flooding episodically interrupted eolian processes and buried the dunes in mud. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ranaviruses are agents of disease, mortality and population declines in ectothermic vertebrates and emergences have been repeatedly linked to human activities. Ranaviruses in the common midwife toad ranavirus lineage are emerging in Europe. They are known to be severe multi-host pathogens of amphibians and can also cause disease in reptiles. Recurrent outbreaks of ranavirus disease and mortality affecting three species have occurred at a small reservoir in north-west Spain but no data were available on occurrence of the pathogen in the other amphibian and reptile species present or at adjacent sites. We sampled nine species of amphibians and reptiles at the reservoir and nearby sites and screened for ranavirus presence using molecular methods. Our results show infection with ranavirus in all nine species, including first reports for Hyla molleri, Pelophylax perezi, Rana iberica, and Podarcis bocagei. We detected ranavirus in all four local sites and confirmed mass mortality incidents involving Lissotriton boscai and Triturus marmoratus were ongoing. The reservoir regularly hosts water sports tournaments and the risks of ranavirus dispersal through the translocation of contaminated equipment are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice paddy irrigation ponds can sustain surprisingly high taxonomic richness and make significant contributions to regional biodiversity. We evaluated the impacts of pesticides and other environmental stressors (including eutrophication, decreased macrophyte coverage, physical habitat destruction, and invasive alien species) on the taxonomic richness of freshwater animals in 21 irrigation ponds in Japan. We sampled a wide range of freshwater animals (reptiles, amphibians, fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, insects, annelids, bryozoans, and sponges) and surveyed environmental variables related to pesticide contamination and other stressors listed above. Statistical analyses comprised contraction of highly correlated environmental variables, best-subset model selection, stepwise model selection, and permutation tests. Results showed that: (i) probenazole (fungicide) was a significant stressor on fish (i.e., contamination with this compound had a significantly negative correlation with fish taxonomic richness), (ii) the interaction of BPMC (insecticide; also known as fenobucarb) and bluegill (invasive alien fish) was a significant stressor on a "large insect" category (Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, and Trichoptera), (iii) the interaction of BPMC and concrete bank protection was a significant stressor on an "invertebrate" category, (iv) the combined impacts of BPMC and the other stressors on the invertebrate and large insect categories resulted in an estimated mean loss of taxonomic richness by 15% and 77%, respectively, in comparison with a hypothetical pond with preferable conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Fundamental data on the distributions, diversity, and threat status of terrestrial snakes and lizards (hereafter squamates) is limited. This is due to the cryptic nature of species in this faunal group, and to limitations in the effectiveness of the survey methods used to detect these species. Camera-traps are a useful tool for detecting numerous vertebrate species, yet their use for detecting squamates has been limited. Here, we apply recent methodological advancements in camera-trapping and assessed the utility of camera-traps for inventorying a squamate assemblage by comparing camera-trapping survey results with two widely used labour-intensive methods: artificial refuges and pitfall traps. Methods: We conducted a 74-day survey using camera-traps and, concurrently, four by four-day surveys using labour-intensive methods. Given the duration and three detection methods, we compared seven variants of survey protocol, including using each method alone or all methods simultaneously. We compared both the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of each survey protocol by estimating the number of species detected at the transect level, and by calculating the costs of conducting those surveys. Results: We found the camera-trapping survey was most cost-effective, costing 687 AUD (CI 534–912) per squamate species detected, compared with the 2975 AUD (CI 2103–4486) per squamate species detected with the labour-intensive methods. Using all methods together was less cost-effective than using camera-traps alone. Additionally, there was a 99% probability that camera-traps would detect more species per transect than the labour-intensive methods examined. Discussion & conclusion: By focusing the analysis at the level of the survey, rather than the level of the device, camera-traps are both a more effective and cost-effective technique for surveying terrestrial squamates. Where circumstances are appropriate, those wildlife researchers and managers currently using camera-traps for non-squamate surveys, can adopt the methods presented to incorporate squamate surveys with little upfront cost. Additionally, researchers currently using traditional techniques can be confident that switching to camera-traps will likely yield improved results. Still, camera-traps are not a panacea and careful consideration into the benefits and usefulness of these techniques in individual circumstances is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birds and pterosaurs have pneumatic bones, a feature likely related to their flight capabilities but whose evolution and origin is still poorly understood. Pneumatic foramina are present on the external surface of the bone and are reliable indicators of post-cranial skeletal pneumatization present in Pterosauria, Eusauropoda, and Neotheropoda. Here, we carried out a qualitative analysis of the position, size and number of pneumatic foramina of the cervical and thoracic/dorsal vertebrae of pterosaurs and birds, as they have the potential to challenge hypotheses about the emergence and evolution of the respiratory trait in these groups. We also discussed differences between pneumatic and vascular foramina for identification purposes. Besides phylogenetic representativeness, the pterosaur taxonomic sampling considered the preservation of specimens and, for birds, their life habit, as this relates to the level of pneumatization. Pneumatic foramina on the lateral faces of the centrum of the mid-cervical vertebrae of pterosaurs and birds differ in position and size, and those adjacent to the neural canal additionally differ in number. The avian posterior cervical vertebrae show a higher number of pneumatic foramina in comparison to their mid-cervicals, while the opposite is true for pterosaurs, suggesting differences in the cervical air sac of these clades. Pneumatic foramina were found at the base of the transverse processes of the notarial vertebrae of birds, while they were absent from some of the pterosaurs analyzed here, revealing the presence of a pneumatic hiatus in the vertebral column that might be explained due to the distance of this structure to the cervical air sac. These findings indicate that, although the overall skeletal pneumatization of pterosaurs and birds present deep homologies, some pneumatic features occurred convergently because variation in the number of pneumatic foramina along the vertebral column is related to the position of the air sacs in pterosaurs and birds and/or the habit of each species. There is an evident reduction of the pneumatic foramina in birds that have aquatic foraging and an increase in the ones which perform static soaring. Although we did not find any external anatomical difference between pneumatic and vascular foramina, we observed that vascular foramina occur at specific sites and thus identification on the basis of location is reliable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological, ecological, social, and technological systems are complex structures with multiple interacting parts, often represented by networks. Correlation matrices describing interdependency of the variables in such structures provide key information for comparison and classification of such systems. Classification based on correlation matrices could supplement or improve classification based on variable values, since the former reveals similarities in system structures, while the latter relies on the similarities in system states. Importantly, this approach of clustering correlation matrices is different from clustering elements of the correlation matrices, because our goal is to compare and cluster multiple networks–not the nodes within the networks. A novel approach for clustering correlation matrices, named "snakes-&-dragons," is introduced and illustrated by examples from neuroscience, human microbiome, and macroeconomics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is a globally distributed marine species whose evolutionary history has been molded by geological events and oceanographic and climate changes. Divergence between Atlantic and Pacific clades has been associated with the uplift of the Panama Isthmus, and inside the Pacific region, a biogeographic barrier located west of Hawaii has restricted the gene flow between Central/Eastern and Western Pacific populations. We investigated the carapace shape of C. mydas from individuals of Atlantic, Eastern Pacific, and Western Pacific genetic lineages using geometric morphometrics to evaluate congruence between external morphology and species’ phylogeography. Furthermore, we assessed the variation of carapace shape according to foraging grounds. Three morphologically distinctive groups were observed which aligned with predictions based on the species’ lineages, suggesting a substantial genetic influence on carapace shape. Based on the relationship between this trait and genetic lineages, we propose the existence of at least three distinct morphotypes of C. mydas. Well-defined groups in some foraging grounds (Galapagos, Costa Rica and New Zealand) may suggest that ecological or environmental conditions in these sites could also be influencing carapace shape in C. mydas. Geometric morphometrics is a suitable tool to differentiate genetic lineages in this cosmopolitan marine species. Consequently, this study opens new possibilities to explore and test ecological and evolutionary hypotheses in species with wide morphological variation and broad geographic distribution range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Health outcomes and causality are usually assessed with individual level sociodemographic variables. Studies that consider only individual-level variables can suffer from residual confounding. This can result in individual variables that are unrelated to risk behaving as proxies for uncaptured information. There is a scarcity of literature on risk factors for snakebite. In this study, we evaluate the individual-level risk factors of snakebite in Sri Lanka and highlight the impact of spatial confounding on determining the individual-level risk effects. Methods: Data was obtained from the National Snakebite Survey of Sri Lanka. This was an Island-wide community-based survey. The survey sampled 165,665 individuals from all 25 districts of the country. We used generalized linear models to identify individual-level factors that contribute to an individual’s risk of experiencing a snakebite event. We fitted separate models to assess risk factors with and without considering spatial variation in snakebite incidence in the country. Results: Both spatially adjusted and non-adjusted models revealed that middle-aged people, males, field workers and individuals with low level of education have high risk of snakebites. The model without spatial adjustment showed an interaction between ethnicity and income levels. When the model included a spatial adjustment for the overall snakebite incidence, this interaction disappeared and income level appeared as an independent risk factor. Both models showed similar effect sizes for gender and age. HEmployment and education showed lower effect sizes in the spatially adjusted model. Conclusions: Both individual-level characteristics and local snakebite incidence are important to determine snakebite risk at a given location. Individual level variables could act as proxies for underling residual spatial variation when environmental information is not considered. This can lead to misinterpretation of risk factors and biased estimates of effect sizes. Both individual-level and environmental variables are important in assessing causality in epidemiological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a vivid research on securely deliver a secret message by using a data hiding technique in digital images. However, most existing solutions of data-hiding need to encrypt secret data first, and embed the encrypt message into cover image, which is not promising any security once the embedding algorithm is leaked. In this paper, an efficient and adaptive data hiding scheme is presented which is based on a new reference matrix named secure reference matrix. The scheme is flexible enough to meet different data hiding capacities and image quality as needed, and we allow the reference matrix to be more secure since it is randomly generated each time and make it much harder for being attack with exhaustive manner by extending the possible solution. We give the detail protocol for our scheme and provide the practical test and performance analysis. Experimental results show that our scheme has a better flexibility and efficiency in embedding process, and the average value of Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR) for the stego-images which are generated by our scheme have a higher visual quality for different embedding capacities, and our scheme is more efficient compared with related work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans and other animals effortlessly identify natural sounds and categorize them into behaviorally relevant categories. Yet, the acoustic features and neural transformations that enable sound recognition and the formation of perceptual categories are largely unknown. Here, using multichannel neural recordings in the auditory midbrain of unanesthetized female rabbits, we first demonstrate that neural ensemble activity in the auditory midbrain displays highly structured correlations that vary with distinct natural sound stimuli. These stimulus-driven correlations can be used to accurately identify individual sounds using single-response trials, even when the sounds do not differ in their spectral content. Combining neural recordings and an auditory model, we then show how correlations between frequency-organized auditory channels can contribute to discrimination of not just individual sounds but sound categories. For both the model and neural data, spectral and temporal correlations achieved similar categorization performance and appear to contribute equally. Moreover, both the neural and model classifiers achieve their best task performance when they accumulate evidence over a time frame of approximately 1–2 seconds, mirroring human perceptual trends. These results together suggest that time-frequency correlations in sounds may be reflected in the correlations between auditory midbrain ensembles and that these correlations may play an important role in the identification and categorization of natural sounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) formally listed snakebite envenoming (snakebite hereafter) as a NTD, adding it to the global health agenda and marking an important shift in both awareness and control efforts [[1]]. We explore how human health, animal health, and reliance on agricultural activity and domestic animals for livelihood should be considered in a One Health approach. In the human health dimension, available national estimates place snakebite as a leading cause of health burden due to NTDs in terms of disability-adjusted life years [[14]]. DIAGRAM: Fig 1: Pathways to health and livelihood losses due to snakebite in a One Health approach to the socioeconomic impact assessment of snakebite. [Extracted from the article]

Sharks are top predators across ocean food webs and have a major ecological role in marine ecosystems. Investigating the trophic ecology of this group of species is thus essential to understand ecosystem functioning and inform specific management actions aimed at shark conservation. The Galapagos Islands represent one of the last ocean wildernesses, where populations of sharks and other top marine predators come close to a pristine status. Here we provide the first study on the trophic ecology of the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) within the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR), using a combination of stable isotope analysis, satellite tracking, and passive acoustic telemetry to investigate ontogenetic and spatial variations at two regions. The mean estimated δ13C and δ15N at Isabela island (western region) were -13.9 ± 0.5‰ and 13.7 ± 0.7‰; and for Santa Cruz island (central region) were -13.8 ± 0.3‰ and 13.4 ± 0.7‰, respectively. Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) were the main prey item for large tiger sharks (>280 cm TL), while smaller sharks mainly fed on squid and pelagic fish. Tiger sharks exhibited a high degree of philopatry around green sea-turtle nesting areas, with the majority of sharks detected around green sea-turtle nesting areas for at least 10 months after their capture date, and some individuals were even present during the entire three-year study period. Although we did not report statistically significant differences between the two regions, isotopic and electronic tagging data suggest that tiger sharks in the Galapagos could be segregated into specific populations separated by geographical scales of <100 km. The high productivity of the archipelago, along with the protection from industrial fishing granted by the GMR, result in abundant and predictable sources of prey. This high food abundance, combined with the presence of suitable habitats throughout the tiger shark life cycle, might result in a reduction of migratory behaviours when compared to movement patterns of tiger sharks in other ocean basins. Additional studies using genetic tools could provide further evidence on the presence of separate management units, as it has been recently revealed for other shark species inhabiting the GMR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snake venoms are complex protein mixtures with different biological activities that can act in both their preys and human victims. Many of these proteins play a role in prey capture and in the digestive process of these animals. It is known that some snakes are resistant to the toxicity of their own venom by mechanisms not yet fully elucidated. However, it was observed in the Laboratory of Herpetology of Instituto Butantan that some Bothrops moojeni individuals injured by the same snake species showed mortalities caused by envenoming effects. This study analyzed the biochemical composition of 13 venom and plasma samples from Bothrops moojeni specimens to assess differences in their protein composition. Application of sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) showed distinct venom protein profiles, but very homogeneous plasma profiles. Western Blotting (WB) was performed with plasma samples, which were submitted to incubation with the respective venom. Some individuals showed an immunorecognized band zone around 25 kDa, indicating interaction between the same individual plasma and venom proteins. Crossed-WB assay using non-self-plasma and venom showed that this variability is due to venom protein composition instead of plasma composition. These venoms presented higher caseinolytic, collagenolytic and coagulant activities than the venoms without these regions recognized by WB. Mass spectrometry analyses performed on two individuals revealed that these individuals present, in addition to higher protein concentrations, other exclusive proteins in their composition. When these same two samples were tested in vivo, the results also showed higher lethality in these venoms, but lower hemorrhagic activity than in the venoms without these regions recognized by WB. In conclusion, some Bothrops moojeni specimens differ in venom composition, which may have implications in envenomation. Moreover, the high individual venom variability found in this species demonstrates the importance to work with individual analyses in studies involving intraspecific venom variability and venom evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation planning relies on integrating existing knowledge, social-environmental contexts, and potential threats to identify gaps and opportunities for action. Here we present a case study on how priority areas for conservation can be determined using existing information on biodiversity occurrence and threats. Specifically, our goals are: (1) to model the ecological niche of twelve endemic snake species in the Dry Chaco Forest, (2) to quantify the impact of the deforestation rates on their distributions, (3) to propose high priority areas for conservation in order to improve the actual protected area system, and (4) to evaluate the influence of the human footprint on the optimization of selected priority areas. Our results demonstrate that Argentinian Dry Chaco represent, on average, ~74% of the distribution of endemic snake species and deforestation has reduced suitable areas of all snake species in the region. Further, the current protected areas are likely insufficient to conserve these species as only very low percentages (3.27%) of snakes’ ranges occur within existing protected areas. Our models identified high priority areas in the north of the Chaco forest where continuous, well-conserved forest still exists. These high priority areas include transition zones within the foothill forest and areas that could connect patches of forest between the western and eastern Chaco forest. Our findings identify spatial priorities that minimize conflicts with human activities, a key issue for this biodiversity hotspot area. We argue that consultation with stakeholders and decision-makers are urgently needed in order to take concrete actions to protect the habitat, or we risk losing the best conservation opportunities to protect endemic snakes that inhabit the Argentinian Dry Chaco. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plasma chemistry is widely used in diagnostic and research settings in sea turtles. However, plasma discolorations such as hemolysis are often not considered in data interpretation. The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate the effects of moderate hemolysis on plasma electrolytes, minerals, and proteins using dry chemistry analysis (DCA) and protein electrophoresis from nesting leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) from Florida and to (2) establish blood analyte reference intervals. Twenty-six plasma samples with absence of hemolysis were selected and sub-divided into one non-hemolytic aliquot and an aliquot that was experimentally manipulated to mimic moderate hemolysis. Plasma samples were analyzed for hemoglobin using a handheld photometer; sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, and total protein using DCA; and protein electrophoresis. Packed cell volume and hemoglobin were measured in corresponding whole blood samples. Reference intervals were established. All analytes except calcium and pre-albumin were significantly higher and the calcium:phosphorus and albumin:globulin ratios were significantly lower in hemolytic plasma compared to non-hemolytic plasma. Alpha2-globulins and potassium were the analytes most impacted by hemolysis, averaging 3.3- and 2.0-fold higher in hemolyzed samples, respectively, indicating that (1) hemoglobin migrates into the alpha2-globulin region in this species and (2) notable intracellular potassium is released into plasma with hemolysis. Attempted conversion factors for compensation of hemolysis were considered inaccurate for 4 of 16 analytes due to non-significant regression lines. We also report that PCV provides an estimate of hemoglobin (g/L) using the formula: (2.59 × PCV) + 24.59. Given the spurious effects of hemolysis, the degree of this artifact should be reported with biochemistry data, and samples with moderate to severe hemolysis should be excluded from datasets when interpreting electrolyte, mineral, and protein results. This will ensure accurate data interpretation for individual turtles in rehabilitation or research settings and population-level data relevant to conservation-focused projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boid Inclusion Body Disease (BIBD) is a potentially fatal disease reported in captive boid snakes worldwide that is caused by reptarenavirus infection. Although the detection of intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (IB) in blood cells serves as the gold standard for the ante mortem diagnosis of BIBD, the mechanisms underlying IB formation and the pathogenesis of BIBD are unknown. Knowledge on the reptile immune system is sparse compared to the mammalian counterpart, and in particular the response towards reptarenavirus infection is practically unknown. Herein, we investigated a breeding collection of 70 Boa constrictor snakes for BIBD, reptarenavirus viraemia, anti-reptarenavirus IgM and IgY antibodies, and population parameters. Using NGS and RT-PCR on pooled blood samples of snakes with and without BIBD, we could identify three different reptarenavirus S segments in the collection. The examination of individual samples by RT-PCR indicated that the presence of University of Giessen virus (UGV)-like S segment strongly correlates with IB formation. We could also demonstrate a negative correlation between BIBD and the presence of anti-UGV NP IgY antibodies. Further evidence of an association between antibody response and BIBD is the finding that the level of anti-reptarenavirus antibodies measured by ELISA was lower in snakes with BIBD. Furthermore, female snakes had a significantly lower body weight when they had BIBD. Taken together our findings suggest that the detection of the UGV-/S6-like S segment and the presence of anti-reptarenavirus IgY antibodies might serve as a prognostic tool for predicting the development of BIBD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a wealth of published information on the epibiont communities of sea turtles, yet many of these studies have exclusively sampled epibionts found only on the carapace. Considering that epibionts may be found on almost all body-surfaces and that it is highly plausible to expect different regions of the body to host distinct epibiont taxa, there is a need for quantitative information on the spatial variation of epibiont communities on turtles. To achieve this, we measured how total epibiont abundance and biomass on olive ridley turtles Lepidochelys olivacea varies among four body-areas of the hosts (n = 30). We showed that epibiont loads on olive ridleys are higher, both in terms of number and biomass, on the skin than they are on the carapace or plastron. This contrasts with previous findings for other hard-shelled sea turtles, where epibionts are usually more abundant on the carapace or plastron. Moreover, the arguably most ubiquitous epibiont taxon for other hard-shelled sea turtles, the barnacle Chelonibia spp., only occurred in relatively low numbers on olive ridleys and the barnacles Stomatolepas elegans and Platylepas hexastylos are far more abundant. We postulate that these differences between the epibiont communities of different sea turtle taxa could indicate that the carapaces of olive ridley turtles provide a more challenging substratum for epibionts than do the hard shells of other sea turtles. In addition, we conclude that it is important to conduct full body surveys when attempting to produce a holistic qualitative or quantitative characterization of the epibiont communities of sea turtles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) infection is one of the major causes of diarrheal disease throughout the world. In recent years, an increase in human S. Javiana infection has been reported from the southern part of the United States. However, the sources and routes of transmission of this Salmonella serotype are not well understood. The objective of this study was to perform a systematic review of the literature to identify risk factors for human S. Javiana infection. Using PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic search in Web of Science, PubMed, and the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). Searches returned 63 potential articles, of which 12 articles met all eligibility criteria and were included in this review. A review of the literature indicated that both food and non-food (such as animal contact) exposures are responsible for the transmission of S. Javiana infection to humans. Consumption of fresh produce (tomatoes and watermelons), herbs (paprika-spice), dairy products (cheese), drinking contaminated well water and animal contact were associated with human S. Javiana infections. Based on the findings of this study, control of human S. Javiana infection should include three factors, (a) consumption of drinking water after treatment, (b) safe animal contact, and (c) safe food processing and handling procedures. The risk factors of S. Javiana infections identified in the current study provide helpful insight into the major vehicles of transmission of S. Javiana. Eventually, this will help to improve the risk management of this Salmonella serotype to reduce the overall burden of NTS infection in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Translocated saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) in the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia often return to their original capture sites, which complicates management interventions aimed at reducing human-crocodile conflict. We examined the spatial events implicated in this homing ability, using ARGOS satellite tracking devices. Five large male C. porosus (3.03 m to 4.02 m TL) were shifted and released 100–320 km from their capture sites, and 3 additional ones (3.67 m to 4.23 m TL) were released at their site of capture as controls. Translocated crocodiles were more mobile than the controls, and moved at sea in the direction of their original capture site. However, they were unable or unwilling to swim around a geographic structure, Cobourg Peninsula, which prevented homing being achieved in all five cases. Two control crocodiles remained near their capture sites, but one, after the first year, made a 900km journey for six months, before returning to its original capture and release site. Genetic analysis of tissue samples from nests across the NT coast demonstrated significant genetic structure across the coast, and confirmed that Cobourg Peninsula contributes to genetic differentiation among populations along the NT coast. These results provide new insights into C. porosus movements, which have management significance for the maintenance of public safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: The aims of this study were: a) to describe the pathological and laboratory findings in a case series of stranding and mortality associated with ingestion of large amounts of sea urchins in loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta), and b) to alert veterinarians and biologists involved in sea turtle conservation of this cause of stranding and/or death. Methods: The six loggerheads studied were stranded on the coasts of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain, between 2008 and 2015. Post mortem studies included pathological, microbiological, and sea urchin species identification procedures. Results: All turtles showed severe intestinal impaction caused by large amounts of sea urchins, mainly affecting the colon and the caudal half of the small intestine. Histologically, severe focal fibrinonecrotic enteritis was diagnosed in two turtles. In the remaining turtles, lesions ranged from mild desquamation of the intestinal epithelium to severe congestion of the blood vessels of lamina propria, submucosa, muscular and serosa, and edema. Vibrio sp. was isolated from the spleen and intestinal mucosa of a loggerhead in which focal fibrinonecrotic enteritis had been diagnosed. In five turtles, all the remains were fragments from long-spined sea urchins (Diadema africanum); the last turtle contained a mixture of long-spined sea urchin (90%) and purple sea urchin (Sphaerechinus granularis) (10%) remains. Conclusions: Although the prevalence of this cause of stranding was low (< 1.6%) compared to other mortality causes, continued overfishing and anthropogenic climate change could increase its incidence. Intestinal impaction with large amounts of sea urchins should be included in the differential diagnosis of gastrointestinal diseases in sea turtles, and the possible toxic effect of some sea urchin species on sea turtles should also be investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We here describe the first fossil remains of a green lizard of the Lacerta group from the late Miocene (MN 13) of the Solnechnodolsk locality in southern European Russia. This region of Europe is crucial for our understanding of the paleobiogeography and evolution of these middle-sized lizards. Although this clade has a broad geographical distribution across the continent today, its presence in the fossil record has only rarely been reported. In contrast to that, the material described here is abundant, consists of a premaxilla, maxillae, frontals, parietals, jugals, quadrate, pterygoids, dentaries and vertebrae. The comparison of these elements to all extant green lizard species shows that these fossils are indistinguishable from Lacerta trilineata. Thus, they form the first potential evidence of the occurrence of this species in the Miocene. This may be also used as a potential calibration point for further studies. Together with other lizard fossils, Solnechnodolsk shows an interesting combination of survivors and the dawn of modern species. This locality provides important evidence for the transition of an archaic Miocene world to the modern diversity of lizards in Europe. In addition, this article represents a contribution to the knowledge of the comparative osteological anatomy of the selected cranial elements in lacertids. This study gives special emphasis to the green lizards, but new data are also presented for related taxa, e.g., Timon lepidus, Podarcis muralis or Zootoca vivipara. Although the green lizards include several cryptic species for which determination based on isolated osteological material would be expected to be difficult, our comparisons show several important morphological differences, although a high degree of variability is present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fire is a key ecological process in several biomes worldwide. Over recent decades, human activities (e.g. rural abandonment, monoculture plantations) and global warming are magnifying the risk of fire, with changes in fire intensity and frequency. Here, we offer the first study that examines the impact of fire on the spur-thighed tortoise Testudo graeca living in a native cork oak forest and pine plantation in north-western Africa. A total of 44 transects (22 burnt and 22 unburnt) were sampled at 8 sites affected by fires of natural cork oak forest and pine plantation with 8 surveys per site in 2015–2017 (264 hours of sampling effort). Tortoise densities were estimated with line-transect distance sampling. The detection probability of tortoises was higher in burnt (0.915) than unburnt (0.474) transects. The density of tortoises was negatively associated with elevation and declined with fire by c. 50% in both forest types. The negative response of T. graeca to fire should be considered in conservation planning of this species in north-western Africa in a future scenario of changes in fire regime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caretta caretta is the most common sea turtle species in the Mediterranean Sea. The species is threatened by anthropomorphic activity that causes thousands of deaths and hundreds of strandings along the Mediterranean coast. Stranded turtles are often cared for in rehabilitation centres until they recover or die. The objective of this study was to characterize the gut microbiome of nine sea turtles stranded along the Sicilian coast of the Mediterranean Sea using high-throughput sequencing analysis targeting V3–V4 regions of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. Stool samples were collected from eight specimens hosted in the recovery centre after a few days of hospitalization (under 7) and from one hosted for many weeks (78 days). To better explore the role of bacterial communities in loggerhead sea turtles, we compared our data with published fecal microbiomes from specimens stranded along the Tuscan and Ligurian coast. Our results highlight that, despite the different origin, size and health conditions of the animals, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria constitute the main components of the microbiota. This study widens our knowledge on the gut microbiome of sea turtles and could be helpful for the set up of rehabilitation therapies of stranded animals after recovery in specialized centres. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]