A common post-translational modification in eukaryotes is the covalent attachment of ubiquitin, a 76 amino acid protein, to specific proteins. Most commonly, ubiquitin is conjugated to e– amino groups of lysine residues, and in unusual cases it can be conjugated to serine and cysteine residues or the terminal amino group of a protein. This process, referred to as ubiquitination (or ubiquitylation), can result in a variety of outcomes for a protein, depending upon how many Ub molecules are attached, whether a polyubiquitin chain is formed, and the nature of the chain. Monoubiquitination can result in relocalization of proteins, while most polyubiquitin chains (e.g., K48 and K11-linked chains) direct proteins for proteasomal degradation. Linkages of Ub formed using Lys 63 or by end-to-end linkages (also known as Met Ub) [1] are not directed to the proteasome and can mediate protein trafficking, scaffolding of protein complexes, or enzyme activation. Ub chains are also used for targeting invading microbes for clearance via xenophagy [2]. Ubiquitination is carried out by a series of enzymes. First, a ubiquitin activating enzyme (E1) forms a thioester with the Cterminus of Ub. The activated Ub is then transferred to one of many (,40 human) ubiquitin conjugating enzymes (E2s). Finally, the E3 enzymes (perhaps over 500 human E3s) direct the transfer of Ub to specific substrates. In eukaryotic cells there are two general classes of E3 ubiquitin ligases. The HECT (Homologous to E6-AP Carboxyl Terminus) and Ring Between Ring (RBR) domain E3s possess an invariant catalytic Cys residue that accepts Ub from a charged E2 before catalyzing transfer of Ub to substrates. Other E3s contain a Really Interesting New Gene (RING) or RING-like domain (U-box) that recruits a charged E2, as well as a domain that recruits substrates. Ub is then transferred from the E2 to the substrate, with the E3 serving primarily as a scaffold. Some RING E3s are single polypeptides, while the cullinRING Ligases (CRLs) are modular multisubunit complexes [3]. Mammalian CRLs are nucleated by one of seven cullin family members, with a RING domain protein that binds to its Cterminus. The N-terminal region of the cullin binds specific cullin adaptor proteins that engage substrate receptor proteins; the most studied class of substrate receptors are the F-Box proteins. CRLs are subject to an additional level of control by a ubiquitin-like modifier protein, Nedd8. E3 enzymes have two important roles. First, they recognize substrates and position them for ubiquitination. Second, E3s dictate the nature of the Ub linkage(s), which will determine the substrate’s fate. For HECT E3s, the Ub chain type is dictated by the C-terminal lobe of the HECT domain [4]. By contrast, RINGtype E3s direct Ub chain type based upon the charged E2 that they recruit [5]. Successful pathogens use proteins that interfere with host cell function that are delivered into eukaryotic host cells via specialized secretion systems and collectively referred to as ‘‘effectors.’’ Remarkably, although ubiquitin is restricted to eukaryotic cells, the past decade has revealed that both bacterial and viral pathogens use effectors to interfere with or manipulate the ubiquitination system [6]. This involves a large number of Bacterially encoded E3 ubiquitin Ligases (BELs). There are multiple RING-type BELs, HECT-like BELs, and even BELs that bear no resemblance to known eukaryotic ubiquitin ligases (Figure 1A).