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Among the variety of approaches, such as current density–voltage (J–V) measurements with different voltage scan directions and rates, steady-state efficiency measurements, and maximum power point tracking (MPPT), MPPT is the most reliable method for characterizing the efficiency of organic–inorganic lead halide perovskite solar cells with strong hysteretic behavior. However, MPPT based on the commonly used simple perturb-and-observe (P&O) algorithm can still significantly underestimate the true maximum power point if the hysteresis is severe and a relatively small dwell time at each bias step is used. Here, we present a predictive P&O algorithm to model the current data which allows the prediction of the steady-state current density for each bias set point. As a result, our predictive MPPT speeds up the tracking process and measures the true maximum power point, regardless of the degree of hysteresis, suggesting a useful approach for characterizing the performance of hysteretic solar cells.

Both tin oxide (SnO2) and fullerenes have been reported as electron selective layers (ESLs) for producing efficient lead halide perovskite solar cells. Here, we report that SnO2 and fullerenes can work cooperatively to further boost the performance of perovskite solar cells. We find that fullerenes can be redissolved during perovskite deposition, allowing ultra-thin fullerenes to be retained at the interface and some dissolved fullerenes infiltrate into perovskite grain boundaries. The SnO2 layer blocks holes effectively; whereas, the fullerenes promote electron transfer and passivate both the SnO2/perovskite interface and perovskite grain boundaries. With careful device optimization, the best-performing planar perovskite solar cell using a fullerene passivated SnO2 ESL has achieved a steady-state efficiency of 17.75% and a power conversion efficiency of 19.12% with an open circuit voltage of 1.12 V, a short-circuit current density of 22.61 mA cm−2, and a fill factor of 75.8% when measured under reverse voltage scanning. We find that the partial dissolving of fullerenes during perovskite deposition is the key for fabricating high-performance perovskite solar cells based on metal oxide/fullerene ESLs.

We report on the synthesis of methylammonium tin triiodide (MASnI3) thin films at room temperature by a hybrid thermal evaporation method and their application in fabricating lead (Pb)-free perovskite solar cells. The as-deposited MASnI3 thin films exhibit smooth surfaces, uniform coverage across the entire substrate, and strong crystallographic preferred orientation along the 〈100〉 direction. By incorporating this film with an inverted planar device architecture, our Pb-free perovskite solar cells are able to achieve an open-circuit voltage (Voc) up to 494 mV. The relatively high Voc is mainly ascribed to the excellent surface coverage, the compact morphology, the good stoichiometry control of the MASnI3 thin films, and the effective passivation of the electron-blocking and hole-blocking layers. Our results demonstrate the potential capability of the hybrid evaporation method to prepare high-quality Pb-free MASnI3 perovskite thin films which can be used to fabricate efficient Pb-free perovskite solar cells.

Recent progress has shown that low-temperature processed tin oxide (SnO2) is an excellent electron selective layer (ESL) material for fabricating highly efficient organic–inorganic metal-halide perovskite solar cells with a planar cell structure. Low-temperature processing and a planar cell structure are desirable characteristics for large-scale device manufacturing due to their associated low costs and processing simplicity. Here, we report that plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition (PEALD) is able to lower the deposition temperature of SnO2 ESLs to below 100 °C and still achieve high device performance. With C60-self-assembled monolayer passivation, our PEALD SnO2 ESLs deposited at ∼100 °C led to average power conversion efficiencies higher than 18% (maximum of 19.03%) and 15% (maximum of 16.80%) under reverse voltage scan for solar cells fabricated on glass and flexible polymer substrates, respectively. Our results thus demonstrate the potential of the low-temperature PEALD process of SnO2 ESLs for large-scale manufacturing of efficient perovskite solar cells.

Efficient lead halide perovskite solar cells have been realized using SnO2 as electron selective layers (ESLs). Here, we report on the effects of the annealing temperature of solution-processed SnO2 ESLs on the performance of perovskite solar cells. We find that the cells using low-temperature annealed SnO2 (LT-SnO2) ESLs outperform the cells using high-temperature annealed SnO2 (HT-SnO2) ESLs, exhibiting higher open circuit voltages and fill factors. Structural, electrical, optical, and electrochemical characterizations reveal the origin of the performance differences: LT-SnO2 produces better film coverage, wider band gap, and lower electron density than that of HT-SnO2. The confluence of these properties results in more effective transportation of electrons and blocking of holes, leading to lower interface recombination. Therefore, LT-SnO2 ESLs are preferred for manufacturing perovskite solar cells on flexible substrates.

Efficient organic–inorganic lead halide perovskite solar cells with regular structure typically use solution-processed electron selective layers. Here, we demonstrated efficient planar perovskite solar cells using vacuum-processed C60 compact electron selective layers at room temperature. The best-performing planar perovskite solar cell has shown a power conversion efficiency of 15.14% with an open circuit voltage of 1.08 V and a fill factor of 74.51% measured under reverse voltage scanning. Our results suggest that vacuum-processed fullerene electron selective layer is a good candidate for fabricating all perovskite tandem solar cells.