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Although there is a wealth of research supporting the effectiveness of using functional behavior assessment (FBA) to inform development of behavior intervention plans (BIPs), schools continue to find the FBA and BIP process challenging for implementation, particularly for students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBDs) in high school settings. The current study evaluated the use of the prevent–teach–reinforce (PTR) FBA model for three high school students with EBD in self-contained settings. Results indicated that PTR was effective at reducing problem behaviors and increasing replacement behaviors for all three students. Teachers implemented the interventions with high levels of fidelity. Social validity scores obtained from both teachers and students indicated acceptability of the PTR process and outcomes. Limitations and areas for future research are suggested.

At the 2016 TASH Conference in St. Louis, a research colloquium was held that focused on the state of selected life-span services for people with severe disabilities. Topics addressed by leading experts in the field included inclusion, teaching academic skills, family support, challenging behavior, supported employment, and voting. This article summarizes the information presenters shared at the colloquium. The presenters prepared a short response with a minimum number of citations based on the material they presented, which focused on the description of the practice, extent to which practices are implemented, challenges to implementing the practice, and recommended practices. Although all contributors suggested that much progress has been made, they concurred that there is still much to do in serving people with severe disabilities and their families.

This article discusses the relationship between evidence-based practices (EBPs) and values in research and practice pertaining to people with severe disabilities. The importance of basing educational and habilitation practices on substantial scientific evidence for practical, moral, and legal reasons is acknowledged given the prevalence of unsubstantiated fads in this arena and the manifest success of many empirically established EBPs. It also addresses the complexity of issues surrounding the identification and use of EBPs in relation to quality of life and rights-based advocacy for this population. EBPs are discussed in a set of five different relationships with values-based practices (VBPs). In the best of cases, EBPs are consistent with and support VBPs as has often been the case in the recent history of research, practice, and social change. In other cases, the relationship between EBPs and VBPs are more complex and require thoughtful discussion in moving ahead with the important work of establishing and implementing EBPs at scale. The differences between efficacy and effectiveness are discussed in the context of the much needed work on implementing EBPs at a national scale. Examples of necessary information to aid implementation are presented. The necessity of ongoing data collection and implementation of EBPs with fidelity are highlighted.

TASH’s historic commitment to advocacy and science has enabled it to be a trusted voice for people with severe disabilities and their families. We review recent developments in the controversy over facilitated communication (FC) in light of major contextual continuities and changes in the past two decades. A series of scholarly reviews of the literature on controlled experiments have established a preponderance of evidence that FC is not reliably an expression from the individual who receives facilitation. Evidence indicates that the facilitator is the usual source of the text. We discuss the standards of proof of efficacy that must apply before an intervention should be endorsed by a national organization that aims to have a major impact on policy and practices. The need for controlled experiments in evaluation interventions is discussed. The central concern in establishing efficacy of a practice is to rule out other plausible explanations for an outcome. The main concern in establishing effectiveness is replication under real-world conditions. The science-based practices movement has been taken up by most of the helping professions contributing to the education and support of people with severe disabilities. The movement aims to identify practices and catalog them in terms of the trustworthiness of the evidence supporting them. The movement has led to establishing standards for determining when an intervention can be said to be efficacious. We urge TASH to join this movement and, in light of a commitment to science-based practices, argue that it should withdraw its stated endorsement of FC, which is not supported by science-based research.

There is increasing demand for access to effective interventions for families who have children with autism. Self-directed learning models have been successfully used with other populations as a way to reduce the service-need discrepancy. The purpose of this study was to evaluate, through a randomized clinical trial, whether the use of a self-directed learning program could result in changes in behavior for parents and their children with autism. Results indicated significant differences between treatment and control groups at posttest on all of the dependent measures. Furthermore, all of the parents who completed the self-directed learning program reported high ratings of satisfaction. The data suggest the efficacy and effectiveness of a self-directed learning program to serve as an initial step toward providing intervention for parents with children with autism.

This study examined the levels of maternal stress and efficacy for Spanish- and English-speaking Latina mothers whose infants were in neonatal intensive care. Thirty-two Latina mothers participated in the study. Significant group differences were found between Spanish- and English-speaking Latina mothers. More stress was experienced by Spanish- than English-speaking Latina mothers in communicating with NICU staff, in general and learning about infant caregiving tasks, in particular. Maternal efficacy was not related to stress experienced by these mothers in the NICU. Implications for early interventions and future directions for research are discussed for Latina mothers and their newborn infants with special needs.

This article examines findings from a national survey of a sample of special educators who serve students with moderate to severe disabilities who are English language learners (ELLs). The survey requested information related to respondent assessment and instructional practices, second language resource availability, satisfaction, and language decision procedures for ELL students. Results indicated many of the respondents assessed and instructed their students in English, lacked ELL training, experienced resource shortages, and did not include parents in the language of instruction decision. Additional findings revealed that teacher satisfaction was predicted by the availability of second language resources, and the administration appeared to have a significant influence on the inclusion/exclusion of parents in the language decision process. The implications of these findings are presented.

Person-directed service models have emerged as important initiatives in improving long-term care. Person-directed services typically have been targeted to particular groups, such as persons with mobility or developmental disabilities or elders with disability. Few attempts have been made to analyze the commonalties, differences, and relative efficacy of the various models. This article presents a cross-disability review of the common elements of person-directed services, describes three primary types of models (personal assistance services, brokered support, and cash and counseling), and summarizes the research evidence related to their efficacy. The major barriers that impede the expansion of person-directed services are discussed. Emerging research findings across disability groups suggest that person-directed services have a positive impact on factors such as quality of life, control, productivity, unmet need, use of preventative health care, and cost. The need to build the evidence base for person-directed services, to address barriers to the expansion of these service models, to support advocacy efforts, and to bolster the political will required for directing substantial resources to person-directed long-term services is emphasized.

Tourette syndrome is a neuropsychiatric condition characterized by multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic that persist for more than 1 year. On September 28, 2005, a symposium was held to (1) describe current diagnostic strategies, (2) discuss recent thoughts on pathogenesis, (3) review current therapies and clinical trials, and (4) define future research directions in Tourette syndrome. In her opening remarks, Dr Story Landis, director of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, emphasized the influence that this conference series has not only on the advancement of research but also on the education of practicing clinicians. Dr Landis also discussed the role of the Institute and the crucial function of volunteer research organizations in funding research to further improve the management of this condition. This article summarizes the presentations and includes the verbatim edited transcript of question and answer sessions. (J Child Neurol 2006;21:630—641; DOI 10.2310/7010.2006.00163).

The neuroanatomy and neurochemistry underlying tic disorders are thought to involve corticostriatothalamocortical circuits and dysregulation of their component neurotransmitter systems. Tourette syndrome is a tic disorder that begins in childhood and follows a waxing and waning course of tic severity. Although it is generally believed to have a genetic component, its etiology has not been fully elucidated. The clinical entity pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS) has led some to suggest that the pathophysiology of tics in some individuals might involve a postinfectious autoimmune component. We review the neural circuits and neurochemistry of Tourette syndrome and evaluate the evidence for and against a role for autoimmunity in the expression of tics. (J Child Neurol 2006;21:678—689; DOI 10.2310/7010.2006.00166).

Many methods are used to detect antibiotic resistance genes in samples. The objective of the study reported here was to compare polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis of community DNA with fecal culturing for detecting antibiotic resistance genes in cattle samples. In the laboratory-based portion of this study, known concentrations of an Escherichia coli strain with 3 antibiotic resistance genes ( cmy-2, flo, and cat) were added to feces from dairy cattle. These genes were used to assess the effect of various primer pairs, chromosomally versus plasmid-encoded genes, and gene copy number on the sensitivity of PCR amplification. Gene-specific PCR amplification was performed on the community DNA extracted from the feces. Feces were cultured for the inoculated strain. In the field-based portion of the study, 80 cattle fecal samples of unknown gene status were compared by use of similar methods. Culture and PCR amplification from community DNA extractions produced variable results, and this variability was most noticeable at dilutions that approached the detection limit of the assay. Typically, PCR amplification had a higher sensitivity than did culture for detecting the gene of interest. However, the sensitivity of culture was improved by plating on selective media containing antibiotics. The community DNA approach enables assessment of bacterial communities in complex samples such as feces, a task that can be prohibitive by budget or time constraints associated with culture methods. Through a strategic combination of culture and community DNA approaches, the relationship between specific selection pressures and the persistence and dissemination of specific resistance genes can be elucidated.

The study uses an alternating treatment design to evaluate the functional effect of teacher's affect on students' task performance. Tradition in special education holds that teachers should engage students using positive and enthusiastic affect for task presentations and praise. To test this assumption, we compared two affective conditions. Three teachers working with a total of 4 elementary-age students with severe disabilities presented discrete trial tasks in neighborhood public school settings. The teachers alternated their affect between a positive affective condition characterized by smiling, enthusiasm, and rising and falling voice inflection and a neutral affect condition characterized by a flat voice tone and inexpressive facial features. Three of the four students responded more accurately to instructional tasks when teachers presented task demands and praise using positive affect. A fourth student, however, performed worse under the positive affect condition. This student had a long history of problem behavior in instructional settings. Implications for assessment practices are discussed.

This report uses meta-analytic methods to reexamine a body of research literature on comparative levels of divorce and marital satisfaction/discord in parents of children with and without developmental disabilities in light of new assumptions about variability in family adjustment, including successful family adaptation and longterm resilience. A historical review of the literature on the impacts of children with disability on their family describes longstanding negative assumptions, in keeping with a view of disability as inevitably detrimental to couples and other family members. This meta-analysis finds a much smaller effect on parents' marital relationships than would be expected under older assumptions about disability and family.

This article presents a study of Mexican immigrant families' beliefs and goals about caregiving and development for their infants with prematurity, low birth weight, and/or intensive health care needs, as well as their experiences with neonatal intensive care services. Interviews with six families were conducted primarily in Spanish, transcribed, and analyzed in a structured procedure following one major tradition of qualitative research. The study revealed that the Mexican immigrant families had distinct caregiving beliefs for their infants, and certain hospital practices were different from their beliefs and customs. Communication and cultural barriers were identified stressors for families in the neonatal intensive care unit. Extended family members were described as a valuable source of support and information about health and infant caregiving practices. Implications for neonatal intensive care service delivery and suggestions for further research are discussed.

Central to the development of rational trade policies pertaining to bluetongue virus (BTV) in- fection is determination of the risk posed by ruminants previously exposed to the virus. Precise determination of the maximal duration of infectious viremia is essential to the development of an appropriate quarantine period prior to movement of animals from BTV-endemic to BTV-free regions. The objective of this study was to predict the duration of detectable viremia in BTV-infected cattle using a probabilistic modeling analysis of existing data. Data on the duration of detectable viremia in cattle were obtained from previously published studies. Data sets were created from a large field study of naturally infected cattle in Australia and from experimental infections of cattle with Australian and US serotypes of BTV. Probability distributions were fitted to the pooled empirical data, and the 3 probability distributions that provided the best fit to the data were the gamma, Weibull, and lognormal probability distributions. These asymmetric probability distributions are often well suited for decay processes, such as the time to termination of detectable viremia. The analyses indicated a . 99% probability of detectable BTV viremia ceasing after # 9 weeks of infection in adult cattle and after a slightly longer interval in BTV-infected, colostrum-deprived newborn calves. Bluetongue is an insect-transmitted, noncontagious viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants that is caused by bluetongue virus (BTV). 11,16,26 It is 1 of only 16 diseases included in List A by the Office Interna- tional des Epizooties (OIE). Diseases included in OIE List A are defined as communicable diseases that have the potential for very serious and rapid spread, irre- spective of national borders, that are of serious socio- economic or public health consequence, and that are of major importance to the international trade of live- stock and livestock products. 1 The major adverse eco- nomic impact of BTV infection in many regions of the world is its effect on international trade and movement of ruminant livestock and germplasm and not direct losses from bluetongue disease. 16,22,25 Central to the development of rational trade policies pertaining to BTV infection is determination of the risk posed by ruminants previously exposed to the vi- rus. BTV infection of cattle is characterized by pro- longed but not persistent viremia. 11 Virus is highly cell associated during viremia, and intimate association of BTV with erythrocytes is responsible for both pro- longed viremia as well as infection of the hematoph- agous vector insects that transmit the virus. 4 Duration of viremia in BTV-infected cattle is related to the life- span of the bovine erythrocyte, and precise determi

As a means of managing a 10-year-old child with autism's aggressive behavior toward his infant sibling in a home setting, the use of clinician-implemented skill training of replacement behavior and clinician fading with self-management of replacement behaviors was examined. This study exemplifies a specific circumstance when a clinician-implemented treatment is useful in ameliorating emotionally charged family circumstances in which parent training is not possible. A single-case design (nonconcurrent multiple baseline across behavior) was used to evaluate performance. The longitudinal nature of the study reflects the moving target of problem behaviors that emerged as the infant developed an increasingly complex repertoire of skills over time. After employing skill training, the researchers found a decrease in the occurrence of aggressive behavior, an increase in the percentage of intervals in which replacement behaviors occurred, and an increase in the duration of sibling interactions. As a result, the family decided to keep their child with autism at home.

This article presents a comparative study of the adaptation of Korean and Korean American parents to their children with developmental disabilities. Repeated interviews with 16 mothers in each group were designed to elicit parental descriptions of the major chronological events concerning their child, process of adaptation and accommodation, sources of stress and support, and perceived benefits and contributions to their lives. The interviews were conducted in Korean, transcribed, translated, and analyzed in a structured procedure in keeping with one major tradition of qualitative research. Comparative cross-cultural research allows investigators to see taken-for-granted phenomena that might otherwise go unseen. The study revealed that both Korean and Korean American parents experienced a process of transformation in regard to their beliefs and feelings about their exceptional children. Religion played an important role in this process. Public policy, social services, and available resources were dramatically different in the two nations, and these differences suffused parental accounts of their individual experiences. The similarities and differences between the two groups are presented thematically. The findings are further discussed in relation to major theories about adaptation in families of young children with disabilities.

This paper describes 2 approaches used to evaluate Parent to Parent mentoring programs in 5 states. Parents were assigned to either a treatment group or a waiting list comparison group. The treatment group participated in Parent to Parent for 2 months. Groups were compared on measures of coping, attitude, and progress on addressing problems. Analyses showed statistically significant positive gains for the parents in the treatment group. Changes on a measure of empowerment were not statistically significant. A qualitative study based on consumer satisfaction interviews with parents provided insight into what makes the Parent to Parent program work. The findings support the value of Parent to Parent self-help programs as one component of a family support system.

This article describes and discusses Project CASELINK, an OSEP-funded three-year project that uses a problem-based learning (PBL) perspective to frame design and development of eight interactive multimedia modules on the Internet to augment new and existing introductory courses in special education anywhere in the nation. The project responds to critical questions about the distinction between craft knowledge that develops from practical experience and academic knowledge acquired through formal study. CASELINK attempts to bridge the gap between these ways of knowing so that all relevant professional knowledge can be identified and applied to improving outcomes for students with disabilities. We describe how and why interactive, multimedia, and distance learning technologies are used by CASELINK in support of the larger purposes of problem-based learning.

This article applies a systematic analysis of everyday moral decision making to the controversy surrounding the use of aversive treatments for people with severe mental retardation. The authors' aim is to provide a framework for analyzing the issue, and they take a position against the use of aversive procedures. The analysis adds some new ideas to the debate. It provides a definition of aversive procedures based upon common moral rules. The concept of protection by the moral rules is discussed and the case made that people with severe mental retardation deserve the protection of the moral rules and that this right is historically new and tenous. The importance of symbols of dehumanization is discussed in light of this tenous condition. The idea of moral agency is applied in order to clarify the kinds of societal sanctions that are and are not appropriate when a person with severe mental retardation violates a moral rule. The authors argue that data are always relevant to moral decision making and that a mounting body of evidence indicates that nonaversive alternatives are available and can replace aversive procedures in all but a very small number of highly unusual cases.

This article describes a participatory action research (PAR) project designed to evaluate Parent to Parent programs in five states in the United States. The PAR team consisted of two groups: 1) parent leaders of programs that create one-to-one matches between help-seeking parents of children with disabilities and volunteer supporting parents and 2) university-based researchers. Based on a narrative record of the project, critical incidents are presented along with reflections of factors that contributed to the success of the project overall. The project successfully gathered evaluative data about Parent to Parent self-help programs. Results of both the PAR project and the study it created are presented. A process of developing a shared understanding of the programs and of the purposes for evaluating them, along with an on-going willingness of parents and researchers to compromise, led to creative solutions to difficulties that arose in meeting the needs of researchers and parents. As a result of the project, published data from a controlled experimental study are now available showing that Parent to Parent assisted parents in developing more positive views of their circumstances and a stronger sense of efficacy in coping with family and child challenges. Interviews indicated some of the reasons why Parent to Parent succeeds and fails. The study also revealed operational problems in the programs that were previously unrecognized. As a result of the project, the participating programs have made several changes to improve their services and they have begun to use the research data to support their legitimacy to funders and to expand their services to new populations.

The education of children with retardation in early-nineteenth-century America is little understood by historians and special educators. Most often, it is assumed that little schooling was possible until the 1840s, with the rise of state-funded institutions. In addition, the perspective of students' families is rarely considered by historians of special education. This paper details the educational experiences of one child, Thomas Cameron (1806–1870), and his family, based on the Cameron family's extensive correspondence. (Thomas Cameron is believed to have had mental retardation.) He was educated in a variety of settings, including John Churchill Rudd's New Jersey school, and the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy of Alden Partridge. Both Rudd and Partridge adapted their usual methods and curricula to Cameron's needs, and attained some success. This study finds that the Southern planter class offered an encouraging environment to a child with a disability. It also points to the possibilities of a manuscript-based, biographical approach in the history of special education.

Five years have passed since the first cloning and sequencing of a large family of G protein-coupled receptors from the olfactory epithelium. These receptors are believed to be the initial sites of odor transduction. Although direct experimental evidence concerning the properties of these molecules is still limited, a variety of studies has provided fascinating insights into a range of possible functions, extending beyond olfactory transduction to include functions as diverse as sperm navigation and neural and cardiac development. To serve these functions, the olfactory receptors appear to express interesting adaptations of the basic seven transmembrane domain structures found in the neurotransmitter members of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. We review here this evidence and propose hypotheses for the molecular mechanisms underlying several distinct functions for this receptor family as guides for future experimental testing. NEUROSCIENTIST 2:262-271, 1996

Previous research has demonstrated volume reduction of the left globus pallidus in children with the codiagnoses of Tourette syndrome and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), in comparison with children who have Tourette syndrome alone and with normal controls. The purpose of this study was to determine whether children with ADHD alone also had volume reduction of the globus pallidus or other basal ganglia structures. Subjects were 10 boys with ADHD, 16 boys with Tourette syndrome and ADHD, and 11 normal control boys. Groups were matched for age. Boys with ADHD were individually matched for age, handedness, and IQ to 10 of the 16 boys with Tourette syndrome and ADHD. Volumes of caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus were measured and corrected for brain volume. The boys with ADHD had significantly smaller left globus pallidus volume and total globus pallidus volume (corrected for brain volume) than the normal controls. The Tourette syndrome plus ADHD group did not differ from the ADHD group on any of the measures. We conclude that small globus pallidus volume, particularly on the left side, is associated with ADHD. (J Child Neurol 1996; 11: 112-115).

This article provides a selected review of the knowledge base on social competence in children. Using the existing literature on social competence as a point of departure, a case is made that (a) a social competence construct score approach to assessing social competence is needed, (b) theoretical and empirical advances in the social competence knowledge base and in microcomputer video assessment technology make such an approach feasible, and (c) direct assessment of children's knowledge and perceptions of key social situations, tasks, and skills can now be accomplished with far greater precision and validity than heretofore. These developments now make it possible to profile and aggregate children's social competence across four important domain areas commonly sampled in assessing social competence (i.e., sociometric procedures, direct observations in natural settings, parent and teacher ratings, and direct assessments of children's knowledge and perceptions of social stimuli). Social competence construct scores, developed at both global and specific levels, can be used to construct such profiles.

Auto antibodies found in the mothers of children with autistic disorder (MCAD) when passively transferred to pregnant mice cause behavioral alterations in juvenile and adult offspring. The goal of this study was to identify whether intraperitoneal injection of MCAD-IgG during gestation affected postnatal cell proliferation and survival in P7 offspring. Pooled MCAD-IgG or IgG from mothers of unaffected children (MUC) or phosphate-buffered saline was injected daily into C57BL/J6 pregnant dams (gestational days E13–E18). MCAD-IgG exposure significantly increased cell proliferation in the subventricular and subgranular zones. In contrast, BrdU-labeled cells on P1 and surviving until P7 (P1-generated cells) showed reduced cell densities in layers 2–4 of frontal and parietal cortices of MCAD mice compared to those in MUC and PBS-injected mice. In conclusion, significant increases in cell proliferation at P7 and reduced densities of P1-generated cells distinguish in utero exposure to MCAD compared to MUC and PBS.

Self-awareness of behavioral or emotional problems was examined in 25 children and adolescents with tic disorders by comparing the Youth, Parent, and Teacher forms of the Child Behavior Checklist. In general, their parents reported a significant number of deviant behaviors which were denied by the patients.

The applications of electron spin resonance (ESR) to carbonaceous materials are reviewed. The stable paramagnetic species observed in the products of low-temperature pyrolysis are odd-alternate neutral free radicals, whereas the unpaired spins of higher temperature carbons and graphites are primarily conduction electrons. The variety of ESR properties and phenomena requires special attention to techniques of measurement and interpretations of results. The relevance to the carbonization process of the free radicals observed by ESR is also discussed.

A rural deinstitutionalization project for young people who experience multiple handicaps and exhibit maladaptive behavior is described. The problems associated with rural service delivery and residential services for young people with problem behaviors are discussed. Measures of adaptive behavior change, maladaptive behavior, daily activities, and consumer satisfaction indicate that young people can be successfully deinstitutionalized regardless of their skill level, their behavior problems, or the geographic nature of their receiving region.

This article presents an evaluation of a multi-element parent and family support intervention for parents of school-aged persons with severe disabilities. Using an experimental design, we compared two randomly assigned groups of parents: one group received a modest level of support consisting of respite care and case management, and the second group received an intensive intervention that consisted of stress management and parenting skills training, support groups, and additional community-based respite care. Separate MANCOVA analyses were conducted for mothers and fathers. Mothers showed significant improvement on measures of depression and anxiety. Further analysis of the data revealed that a significantly greater number of intensive support group members also achieved clinically significant improvement on measures of anxiety and depression. Fathers participated in smaller numbers than mothers. A power analysis revealed large treatment effects for fathers as well as mothers although, due to the small sample size, the results for fathers were significant at p = 0.07. Analyses of 1-year follow-up data revealed that treatment gains maintained for mothers. We discuss the results and limitations of this study in light of current efforts to create family support services nationwide.

The present study was designed to explore the possible links between subordinates' personality traits and their preference for transformational vs transactional leadership style. 87 undergraduate men were required to imagine an “ideal leader” in a work situation and then go through Bass' (1984) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Form 4, to describe the behavior of this ideal leader. Subjects also completed the Affiliation, Achievement, and Succorance subscales of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule as well as a conformity rating scale. Affiliation correlated significantly with charisma, individualised consideration, and the over-all transformational leadership measure. The personality trait of conformity also correlated significantly with intellectual stimulation, indicating that “nonconformers” prefer leaders who provide intellectual stimulation. There was also a tendency for high achievers to favor such leaders. None of the other ratings of subordinates' personality traits correlated significantly with ratings of ideal leadership. The results also showed that student-subjects in the present study preferred working with leaders who are more transformational than transactional.

The parents of 28 patients with Tourette syndrome completed the Child Behavior Checklist. Severity of illness rankings were obtained from the therapist by use of the Q-sort method. Statistically significant positive correlations were obtained between several of the checklist measures and the measure of severity of illness. The results demonstrated a sensitivity of the checklist to variations in degree of dysfunction that if successfully replicated would indicate that the Child Behavior Checklist could be a valuable measure in research on treatment outcome.

This article describes a nonaversive procedure to increase the probability that students with moderate and severe handicapping conditions will follow a directive to begin to work. Pretask requesting was evaluated using an ABA and BAB reversal design across four students with moderate and severe handicaps. The study suggests that familiar, rapidly paced, verbal directions with reinforcement can effectively mediate transitions from one activity to another. The theoretical implications of the procedure for a nonaversive technology of preemptive behavioral treatment are discussed.

A rationale for the establishment of human rights review procedures within local educational agencies is presented. School personnel who work with students served under P.L. 94–142 who have severe behavior problems with or without mental retardation should be familiar with the legal and educational foundations for human rights review processes, especially when intrusive behavioral treatments are considered.