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The use of objective data via sensors and subjective data via qualitative assessments from subject matter experts for the structural health monitoring of important assets is a long-standing and prudent practice. However, humans who build, maintain, or operate these systems are often not monitored with the same degree of importance. Although the reasons for this discrepancy may be numerous and sometimes well-intentioned (e.g. privacy), human monitoring systems are still relatively nascent when compared to their machine-based counterparts. Fortunately, the recent proliferation and miniaturization of wearable technology offers as an unprecedented opportunity in the realm of human monitoring systems. This article presents an example of how human sensing technology is transforming the nature of work in the aircraft maintenance domain by reducing operating costs and enhancing personnel safety. More specifically, this article describes a remote monitoring system for monitoring the health and safety of individuals working Occupational Safety and Health Administration–defined confined spaces, which are dangerous places to work for reasons such as small physical space or adverse atmospheric conditions. The described system consists of (1) wearable monitoring systems for assessing physiological data, postural and activity data, geographic location, and atmospheric data; (2) a body area network for transmitting data to a centralized, cloud-based server; (3) a customized alerting architecture for the generation and management of health and safety alerts; and (4) various user interfaces for depicting critical information to the appropriate parties. This article describes these components in detail along with a brief description of both the history of human monitoring and pitfalls that typically plague such initiatives. The specific initiative that supported the generation of this system is still under development; however, this article aims to provide a practical example of how a human monitoring system can augment safety and cost efficiency in a precarious environment.

There is a need to rapidly collect subjective data from a diverse group of contributors to facilitate argumentation and group decision making that reflects the breadth and depth of the knowledge of the collective group. Methods currently exist, although they are subject to biases and lack traceability. A method and tool have been developed to apply collective intelligence and visualization concepts to enable such rapid decision making while overcoming the identified weaknesses. A pilot study to select the best technology to solve a Naval mission requirement was performed to assess the ability of the tool to: Enable informed decision making, assess differences in contributor mental models, and identify where there is or is not consensus. The method/tool was useful to these ends, warranting further research. Lessons learned were gathered and the validity of the approach was notionally examined, driving the identification of future work to be performed.

Objectives: Patient reported outcomes (PROs) are increasingly used in orthopaedics as a tool to objectively assess subjective data and provide a sense of responsiveness to treatment. Unfortunately, there are several PROs and little data as to which outcome scores are most useful. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the utilization and responsiveness of PROs reported in the literature after shoulder instability surgery. Methods: We performed a systematic review of the PubMed, SportDiscus, Cochrane, and CINHAHL databases according to PRISMA guidelines to identify studies published in the last 10 years which reported PROs after shoulder instability surgery. Articles were excluded if they were not primary research (case reports and review articles), were published only in abstract form, were not available in English, or did not report pre- and post-operative mean PRO values. The specific PROs utilized, number of patients, mean follow-up time, and preoperative and postoperative means and standard deviations were recorded for each article, For studies including preoperative and postoperative means and standard deviations of two or more PROs, and the comparative responsiveness (CR) of each PRO was assessed (CR was calculated by squaring PRO change score t-value ratio). Results: Abstracts from 112 studies were identified for full text review, and 29 studies ultimately met inclusion criteria. Sixteen different PROs were reported in various combinations in the included studies. Mean follow-up was 25.17 months (SD = 15.01) and mean sample size was 47.34 (SD = 59.06). The majority of studies (72.4%) utilized more than one PRO. The most commonly used PROs were the ASES (13 studies, 44.8%), Rowe (10, 34.5%), WOSI (8, 27.6%), VAS-pain (7, 24.1%), UCLA (7, 24.1%), and Constant (6, 20.7%). The remaining PRO tools appeared in 3 or fewer studies. Responsiveness of the different PRO tools was evaluated with a subset of 4 articles that included sample size, pre- and postoperative means, and pre- and post-operative standard deviations for PROs reported in this subset were the ASES, Rowe, WOSI, VAS-pain, and Constant scores. The Rowe score was much more responsive than both the ASES (RE = 22.8) and Constant scores (RE = 33.17). On the contrary, the VAS-pain was the least responsive, with RE = 0.57 when compared to the ASES, and RE = 0.32 when compared to the WOSI. ASES remained more responsive than the Constant (RE = 1.75), VAS-pain (RE = 1.75), and WOSI (RE = 0.97). Conclusion: Despite being less frequently utilized, the Rowe score was considerably more responsive than the ASES and Constant scores. ASES, Constant, and WOSI were similar to each other in terms of responsiveness, and the shoulder-specific scores were more responsive than the VAS-pain score. When assessing patient outcomes related to shoulder instability surgery, surgeons may want to consider employing the more sensitive, and instability-specific, Rowe score rather than other commonly used shoulder PROs.

The increased use of unmanned vehicles (UVs) in military environments requires development of guidelines to enable maximal compatibility between those technologies and users’ needs. Specifically, the way video feeds are delivered to dismounted soldiers may affect the utility of such information. This work follows previous studies on the type (e.g., size) of displays required by dismounted soldiers to process video feed from UVs in a variety of operational situations. Sixteen former infantry soldiers with no experience using UV video feed participated. Three display types were examined using color or B/W video feeds in three different operational tasks (identification, orientation and movement detection). Performance and subjective data were collected. Results showed some effects for display type, no significant effect for feed color and an interaction for display type and feed color only in response time.

A multi-objective methodology is proposed to optimise lighting solutions by taking into account not only energy objectives but also subjective ones such as visual preferences. The originality of this method lies in the integration of subjective data obtained from psycho-visual tests conducted with panels of observers potentially representative of end users, into a multi-objective optimisation framework. This method makes it possible to identify all the best tradeoffs and the direct correspondence between power demand and user visual preferences, to handle constraints, to handle inter-individual differences and to optimise preferences on various visual attributes at the same time. The methodology was developed through a pilot study of office lighting optimisation. The findings are consistent with previous work and provide additional application knowledge about the case study.

International audience; In this short introduction, we briefly recall the aims of this double dossier: exploring new paths in combining qualitative and quantitative methods. The temporal dimension and the combination of frameworks are also present in all these papers.Here the focus is more precisely put on the articulations between objective and subjective data.; Dans cette brève introduction nous rappelons les objectifs de ce double dossier : explorer de nouvelles voies dans la combinaison des méthodes qualitatives et quantitatives. La dimension temporelle et l'articulation des échelles sont présentes également dans l'ensemble de ces travaux. Ici la focale est portée plus précisément sur les articulations entre données objectives et subjectives.

The use of minimally invasive surgeries, like laparoscopy and microsurgery, is increasing due to its benefits to the patient; however, the equipment necessary for the surgeries imposes postural constraints on the surgeons and increases their risk for discomfort and injuries. In microsurgery, the microscope limits surgeon movement and the long length of the surgeries exposes surgeons to prolonged sustained postures. Stereoscopic displays may reduce these constraints and maintain surgeon performance. Six subjects with no surgical experience performed microsurgical skills tests using three visualization methods: 2D visualization, 3D visualization, and the traditional microscope. Task performance was measured through video analysis and subjective data was gathered on discomfort, posture, and equipment usability. Tasks performed on the microscopes had the highest performance efficiency and the least errors. The 3D visualization method had the lowest performance efficiency. However, subjects experienced higher ...

It is a common problem to distinguish a minor treatment change from background variation, especially when establishing no observed effect levels. Toxicological histopathologists use a wide range of methods at the microscope for comparing groups to help them form their opinions. Although the data produced by these methods can be subjective, all of these methods produce data that can be formally analyzed to give an objective, probabilistic result, provided the observations are unbiased. Other important experimental disciplines make extensive use of completely subjective data to produce objective results, for example, clinical trials using patients' symptoms. It is argued here that pathological experimental data too should be analyzed before an expert opinion (along with the objective evidence for that opinion) is formally reported. The Ordering Method, based on ranking the severity of a putative toxic change, is the most sensitive, robust, and analytically flexible method currently available.

The increased usage of new technologies in combat requires measuring tools and guidelines that will enable maximal compatibility between technology and users' needs. Specifically, using video feeds retrieved by dismounted soldiers from different types of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) may affect the efficiency level of using such machines. This work follows our previous studies on the type (e.g. size) of displays required by dismounted soldiers to process video feed from UAVs. Twenty two former infantry soldiers with no experience using UAV video feed participated. Three displays were examined using two video feed types (MALE and Mini UAVs) in four different task types (description, direction, orientation, and response). Performance and subjective data were collected. Results show no effect (only some trends) for display type, but significant effect for the interaction between video feed type and task type and display type.

Employing advanced technology in combat can be helpful, but should be done with caution. Specifically, the use of video images retrieved from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) by dismounted soldiers can be beneficial for presenting tactical and geographic information, when properly displayed. This work follows our previous studies on the type (e.g. size) of displays required by dismounted soldiers to process video feed from UAVs. Sixteen former infantry soldiers with no experience using UAV video feed participated. Four displays were examined in two scenarios (urban and rural) and in three different task domains (interpretation, orientation and response). Performance and subjective data were collected. Results show trends for differences between displays, scenarios, and task domain dependency. The most consistent trend marks the smallest display (personal digital assistant - PDA) to be unsuitable for this type of tasks.

To effectively explore the lunar surface, astronauts will need a transportation vehicle which can traverse all types of terrain. Currently, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) is investigating two lunar rover configurations to meet such a requirement. Under the Lunar Electric Rover (LER) project, a comparison study between the unpressurized rover (UPR) and the small pressurized rover (SPR) was conducted at the Black Point Lava Flow in Arizona. The objective of the study was to obtain human-in-the-loop performance data on the vehicles with respect to human-machine interfaces, vehicle impacts on crew productivity, and scientific observations. Four male participants took part in four, one-day field tests using the exact same terrain and scientific sites for an accurate comparison between vehicle configurations. Subjective data was collected using several human factors performance measures. Results indicate either vehicle configuration was generally acceptable for a lunar mission; however, the SPR configuration was preferred over the UPR configuration priminarly for the SPR's ability to cause less fatigue and enabling greater crew productivity.

Issues of moving through hatchways and related design problems of hatch size and shape were investigated for the Altair lunar habitat. To insure proper usability and safety, the goal of the current study was to understand the critical dimensions necessary for proper translation through the hatch by manipulating size (height, width, step over height, and overall height) and shape (rectangular and circular). A single participant donning a pressurized rear-entry integrated (REI) Extravehicular Activity (EVA) suit was timed and video recorded as participant accomplished various translations through a mockup hatch. Objective performance measures consisted of time and contact data with the hatch, while subjective data was obtained using the Cooper-Harper Qualities Ratings, Corlett and Bishop Discomfort Scale, a Physical Effort scale, and a functionality questionnaire. Correlation analysis discovered a significant relationship between the hatch dimension of height and all of the performance measures, as well as, step over and overall height with some of the dependent scores.

Complete dentures can be produced with different types of occlusal forms. There is some evidence to suggest that it may be advantageous to provide complete dentures with cusped posterior teeth. The aim of this research was to compare the levels of subject satisfaction with 3 types of posterior occlusal forms for complete dentures, in a randomized cross-over trial design. Forty-five participants were randomly assigned 3 sets of complete dentures with different posterior occlusal forms (zero-degree, anatomic, and lingualized occlusions). Subjective data were collected according to visual analogue scales after 8 weeks of denture-wearing. Statistical analysis consisted of repeated-measures analysis of variance, followed by paired t tests. Lingualized and anatomic occlusal forms were perceived to be significantly superior in terms of chewing ability, when compared with zero-degree posterior occlusal surfaces.

There are few studies in the literature that relate subjective ratings to objective measures of low frequency lateral acceleration such as might be experienced whist cornering in a car. This paper reports a study where 1203 subjects drove two different cars (‘sport’ and ‘comfort’) on two different lateral acceleration trials. Objective measures of acceleration were taken, in addition to ratings of lateral acceleration intensity and confidence. It is shown that there was little difference between the peak lateral accelerations experienced in the two cars, although males chose to drive with greater lateral acceleration (i.e. at higher speed) than the females. Despite differences between the objective measures of acceleration being small, subjective data showed that the intensity of acceleration was rated higher for the comfort car than the sport car indicating that subjective ratings are context specific. Ratings of intensity were correlated with measures of peak acceleration for each car //// trial combination. Drivers were more confident driving the sport car than the comfort car on the two trials. However, there was only a weak and inconsistent relationship between lateral acceleration and driving confidence. It is hypothesised that this is an example of risk homeostasis whereby drivers choose to moderate their speed (and therefore the lateral acceleration) in response to their confidence level that might be affected by a complex combination of factors.

e agree with Entine’s (2003 [this issue]) assertion that the personalhistories of the investigators matter to academic research in general,and especially to social science. Our backgrounds influence the type of researchthat attracts our time and attention, affect the theories we draw on and the data weuse, and although we less like to admit this, inevitably shade our interpretations ofthe results. But we disagree with Entine’s assertion that this renders research oncorporate social responsibility (CSP) and its relation to financial performance, orwhat is often referred to as socially responsible investing (SRI), a worthless andeven harmful academic exercise.OfcourseSRIresearchisimperfect.Aswithallsocialscienceresearch,thesim-plifications necessary in conducting SRI research make its mapping to a complexrealityimperfect.Aswithallfinancialprojections,thepastisnotaperfectindicatorof future performance. As with all accounts of a firm’s past activities and itsintended future activities, public data may not accurately reflect reality, be it theresult of fraud or error. As with the real world in general, self-interest exists, and itinevitably if not intentionally shades our interpretations of subjective data. How -ever,theseimperfectionsdonotrenderSRIresearchuseless.Eventhoughthefind -ings of SRI research have been mixed, often incomparable, and as a result, notentirely compelling, such studies have put firms and investors in a better positionthan they would be if there were no SRI research. More important, the state of the“art” is advancing.Inthisarticle,weprimarilyfocusonEntine’s(2003)assertionthatSRIresearchis “hopelessly flawed” (p. 352).We argue that although SRI researchers have pri -marily chosen to pluck the low-hanging fruit in this line of inquiry, it is possible toobtain unbiased higher level insight. In the following, we offer what we believe tobeanagnosticapproachtoassessingSRIresearch.Wehaveobserved,throughmin -imally biased academic eyes

The researchers identified nine patient handling tasks that place nursing staff at high risk for musculoskeletal injuries. An expert panel redesigned these tasks using new patient handling technologies and work practice controls. The key objective was to evaluate the biomechanical benefit of the redesigned tasks. Back and shoulder muscle activity, forces on the lumbar spine, shoulder joint moments, and perceived comfort were evaluated in a laboratory setting. Using objective and subjective data, 63 participants who performed the redesigned tasks were compared with 71 participants who used standard procedures. Objective data revealed significant improvement in five of the redesigned tasks, while staff subjectively rated four of the redesigned tasks as significantly improved. Nursing tasks can be redesigned to improve caregiver and patient safety using new patient handling technologies and work practice controls. Further study is needed to redesign other high risk tasks to promote safer work environments.

Legal regulations in the EU concerning the evaluation of mental workload require that suitable and practical methods for the assessment of mental workload at the workplace are needed. Currently the 0.1 Hz component of heartrate variability (HRV) is considered an attractive and promising measure of mental strain. However, systematic and comprehensive studies investigating the psychometric properties of this cardiovascular measure are still missing. Therefore this problem has been addressed experimentally: If the 0.1 component of HRV is a valid measure of mental strain it should discriminate between mental load produced by different types of tasks (diagnosticity) and different levels of difficulty (sensitivity). Comparing psychophysiological, performance, and subjective data the results for the psychophysiolgical data cannot be interpreted as support for a sufficient sensitivity and diagnosticity of the 0.1 component of HRV as a measure of mental strain. This cardiovascular indicator does not meet conventional requirements to be used in mental and especially cognitive workload evaluation. However, there is evidence that the 0.1 component of HRV is more likely to indicate emotional strain (stress reactions) or general activation.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of a drug information service on patient outcomes. DESIGN: Prospective evaluation of patient-specific drug information requests. SETTING: Healthcare professional and consumer drug information service located at a college of pharmacy. PARTICIPANTS: Consumers and healthcare professionals of the province. INTERVENTION: Patient-specific questions received by the drug information service were reviewed and evaluated for actual patient outcome, inquirers' opinion of impact of the service with respect to patient outcome, and for objectivity and timeliness of the response. An expert panel determined whether the responses and recommendations given by the service were appropriate, determined what impact the service had on the patient, and assessed the seriousness of the inquiry. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Classification of patient outcome by objective and subjective data based on predetermined desired outcomes. RESULTS: Ninety-eight and 68 patient-specific requests were received from healthcare professionals and consumers, respectively. The panel concluded that 94.9% of the healthcare requests and 98.5% of the consumer requests were answered appropriately and that the majority of the requests involved potentially serious drug-related problems. The panel also determined that 46.8% of the recommendations to healthcare professionals and 41.0% of the recommendations to consumers resulted in positive patient outcomes. The majority of the positive outcomes involved the prevention of a disease or its symptoms (professional section) and the reduction or elimination of symptoms (consumer section). CONCLUSIONS: The drug information service not only met its objectives of providing drug information in an accurate, objective, and timely manner, but was also able to provide positive patient outcomes.

Using objective and subjective data from the third edition of the Test of Understanding College Economics (TUCE) collected from 117 classes in introductory economics taught at 34 different colleges, this study examines whether students taught by regular faculty with a Ph.D. degree learn more than students taught by regular faculty who have only an M.A. degree. After controlling for other characteristics of instructors, schools, and students, we find no significant association between instructor's terminal degree and several objective measures of student learning in introductory macroeconomics classes; students in introductory microeconomics classes taught by Ph.D.-holding instructors learned substantially and significantly less. For neither subject is there a significant net association between instructor's degree and student assessments of amount learned or instructor effectiveness. The results suggest that a future shortage of Ph.D. economists would not reduce student learning in introductory economics courses.

Breathlessness secondary to both cancer and non-malignant disease is a distressing, exhausting symptom which, to date, has been difficult to control. This paper reports a chart review undertaken on patients referred to the Ottawa Civic Hospital's Palliative Care Service over the 18-month period from 1 January 1992 to 30 June 1993. The intent of the review was to assess the recorded efficacy and safety of nebulized opioid use on patients with complaints of dyspnoea. Fifty-four patients were treated and subjective data have been compiled. The treatment was found to be effective, safe and convenient for the majority of the patients studied. In addition, nebulized opioids have been demonstrated as a treatment modality which is feasible for self-administration by the patient at home.

Perturbed camera views (e.g., reversed, inverted/reversed, inverted) will often be the primary mode of visual feedback for remote manipulator operators during the assembly, maintenance, and servicing of NASA's existing as well as future space craft and installations. This report describes a preliminary investigation of the use of perturbed visual feedback during the performance of simulated space-based remote manipulation tasks. The primary objective of this NASA evaluation was to determine to what extent operators exhibit adaptive strategies which allow them to perform these specific types of remote manipulation tasks more efficiently while exposed to perturbed visual feedback. A secondary objective of this evaluation was to establish a set of preliminary guidelines for enhancing remote manipulation performance and reducing the adverse effects. These objectives were accomplished by studying the remote manipulator performance of test subjects exposed to various perturbed camera-viewing conditions while performing a simulated space-based remote manipulation task. Statistical analysis of performance and subjective data revealed that remote manipulation performance was adversely affected by the use of perturbed visual feedback and performance tended to improve with successive trials in most perturbed viewing conditions. Information gathered in this study was then used to develop a set of adaptive strategies which can serve as an aid in the training of future remote systems operators and a set a preliminary guidelines concerning remotely operated systems design (e.g., camera placement, control system development, and workstation design).

Twelve head-up display (HUD) experienced pilots participated in a study that examined the effects of articulated lines versus parallel, tapered lines in the top and bottom halves of the climb/dive ladder for recovering from nose-down unusual attitudes in a flight simulator. These configurations were assessed using a moving climb/dive marker (CDM) on half of the trials and a fixed pitch reference for the remaining trials. The results indicated that the climb/dive ladder configuration did not affect a pilot's reaction time to initiate a recovery. However, in terms of accuracy of the initial, significant stick input, the articulated lines in the bottom half of the HUD with a moving CDM resulted in significantly poorer performance (about 12% worse) than that associated with the other three configurations. Subjective data suggest that pilots preferred the articulated lines in the bottom half of the HUD even though their preferences did not correlate with their performance. These findings suggest that articulated lines in the bottom half of the HUD are detrimental to a pilot's ability to recover from nose-down unusual attitudes.

Four types of restraint attachment hardware were evaluated using the method of paired comparisons. From these four, one restraint attachment device was chosen and the result accepted by the organizations involved. Paired comparisons provided a way of handling subjective data that produced an outcome which was objectively verifiable while, at the same time, reducing personal bias. The method of paired comparisons, as used in this trade study, is portable, accommodates groups of participants, and allows each participant's input to have equal weight. These advantages argue for using paired comparisons as a basic trade study tool in the selecting hardware, hardware configurations, and software display designs especially for developing systems.

Clinical, empirical, and subjective data are used to explore the concept of hope as it is lived by persons who are diagnosed as terminally ill. Interviews with 11 men who were in stage 2 (asymptomatic) HIV disease explicate the form that hope takes and its role in promoting health when a person must cope with a serious diagnosis. Other research and ideas about hope and dying are presented and a critique is presented of both these ideas and current nursing practice.

Five clinics involving 172 tractor operators from North America and Europe were conducted to evaluate 69 different tractors produced by various manufacturers. Human factors and usability concerns were the primary focus of the evaluations. Two categories of data — physical measures from the vehicles and subjective ratings from participants — were gathered. The physical data consisted of control locations (in 3D space), control travel, and force requirements. Subjective data consisted of hundreds of 5–point acceptability ratings from each participant. The physical data were used to create polynomial regression equations (or models) showing the relationships between an individual physical variable, such as the fore/aft placement of a control, and the subjective acceptability rating for that particular variable. The models and overall results show that (1) there is tremendous design variability within agricultural tractor cabs, (2) control locations within vehicles are systematically related to user acceptability ratings, and (3) there are unique, optimal placement zones for each major category of hand control, such as transmission controls, throttle controls, and hydraulic controls. Furthermore, the models can be used to (1) evaluate current products and (2) evaluate design alternatives for future products.

Criteria for the diagnosis of headache disorders have recently been developed but require empirical validation. We present an approach to the evaluation of headache criteria in a headache clinic: define the group of headache sufferers to be studied, obtain data used in establishing the diagnosis, apply the diagnostic criteria and assess their usefulness. In applying this method to a group of patients with chronic daily headache, we found that approximately one-third would not fit the current criteria for chronic tension-type headache. We conclude that empiric validation of headache criteria based on subjective data is a complex and iterative process. Operational criteria for headache diagnosis to be used by primary care physicians should be validated in that setting and ideally should be relatively simple.

Purpose of Study Surgeons performing laparoscopic surgery often use scissors to cut a variety of tissues, such as fibrotic tissue, calcified vessels, and occasionally tissue containing staples. As a result, the scissors could become dull or damaged. This study compared three laparoscopic scissors in cutting ability and ergonomics to see if true differences existed. Methods Used Three different laparoscopic scissors were compared: Ethicon Endopath (Cincinnati, OH), US Surgical Auto Suture (Norwalk, CT), and Applied Medical Direct Drive (Irvine, CA). Subjective data included surgical ratings of scissors which transected both tissue and staples. It also included 20 blinded volunteers who rated the cutting ability and ergonomics of each scissor. Objective data included an assessment of scissor blade damage via high-magnification digital photography. Data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon signed ranks test and the Friedman test. Summary of Results All scissors performed well cutting fresh tissue; however, the Direct Drive scissor performed better in staple transection, post-staple tissue transection, and during volunteer ratings of performance and ergonomics (p Conclusions Reached All scissors functioned well on initial tissue transection. The Direct Drive scissor performed better in blade durability and ergonomics and was more cost efficient.

This paper outlines a research project directed at determining the visual difficulty of interpreting behind-the-wheel nighttime driving scenes. A series of experiments was conducted utilizing slides which were photographed from a driver's-eye view. Three experiments assessed subjective judgment of the difficulty of the view for driving. Two further experiments examined temporal and eye-movement aspects of scene viewing. Finally, an “instability” model of scene complexity is described and related to the subjective data.

Forefoot surgical outcomes were evaluated in 26 patients with rheumatoid arthritis. A total of 45 procedures were reviewed with emphasis on first ray intervention. Disease duration and aggressiveness of preceding medical therapy were combined to establish a disease severity index. Patients operated were predominantly in the midrange of disease severity. Subjective data on the relief of pain, callus, and deformity were favorable but this benefit was not long lasting inasmuch as patients were most satisfied in the period immediately following surgery and less so as time elapsed from intervention. Fusion of the first metatarsophalangeal joint seemed better than resection alone, indicating that stability should be the primary goal for surgical intervention of the rheumatoid forefoot.

The point is made that in the absence of other human performance data sources, the use of subjective estimates is justifiable and, even more, necessary. The most common methods of eliciting these estimates are described.

The objectives of this research were to determine the subjectively experienced differences in vibration levels between helicopter models and to determine the conditions of maximum subjective fatigue experienced during actual helicopter operations. Subjective data were obtained from 12 experienced helicopter crewmembers assigned to flight test duties. Evaluated concurrently, it was hypothesized that these independent evaluations would provide preliminary data on the effects of vibration on performance. Analysis of the data indicated that the subjectively observed effects of vibration could be divided into two categories: • Direct mechanical interference with imposed immediate performance decrements, and • Fatigue effects which were not apparent until after at least 6 hours of continuous operation. The experienced differences would not be predicted by the current ISO standard 2631.

This study is centered on the modalities of participation or "strategies" of executives in two Canadian provincial sport federations. Crozier and Friedberg's (1977) strategic analysis perspective and restricted phenomenological method were utilized. Objective as well as subjective data were collected and strategies were elaborated from (a) an analysis of official data concerning the sport organizations, and (b) a content analysis of 60 interviews with executives of these organizations. Four ideal-types of strategy were identified: the strategies of technocracy, counteroffensive, political withdrawal, and all-directional defense. These strategies were found to correspond to the executives' organizational level and role, namely: provincial appointed administrator and volunteer executive at the provincial, regional, or local level.

The objective of this study was to investigate alternatives for allocating the tasks associated with defensive counter measures in a fighter cockpit environment. The three methods allocated the functions either totally to the operator or a simulated expert system and dynamically at the operator's request to either. The analysis of the objective data showed there were no significant performance differences among the three treatment conditions. However, the analysis of post treatment subjective data showed the subjects did have confidence in the simulated expert systems's ability to handle the threats (p < .01) and they had a significant preference for some form of computer assistance during the missions (p < .01).

Four methods of presenting stores management information were evaluated in a flight simulation: 1) alphanumeric, 2) color pictorial, 3) black and white pictorial, and 4) alphanumeric/color pictorial. Results indicated that pilots performed equally well with the alphanumeric, color pictorial, and alphanumeric/color pictorial formats but that performance with the black and white pictorial format was significantly worse than all three of these formats. Subjective data indicated significant pilot preference for the alphanumeric/color pictorial format. These results indicate one potential advantage of color pictorial formats in the cockpit. Mainly, in addition to the specific information provided by the alphanumeric format, the color pictorial format provides a “situational awareness” where the pilot can obtain important information at a glance. Also supported by this study is the continued exploration of color computer graphics in the cockpit to increase the efficiency of information transfer between the pilot and the aircraft.

Management scientists and systems designers have long recognized that in some cases objective real world data con tained in their models and systems should be supplemented by subjective data elicited from experienced managers. The recent but growing application of expert system technology to mana gement problems is providing a framework for capturing and using expert knowledge in management systems. In this paper we identify fruitful areas for research and application of expert systems in management.

A human factors engineering review and a formal performance evaluation of the Emergency Response Information System (ERIS) were conducted at a full-scale Boiling Water Reactor simulator. The human factors engineering evaluation focused on display formats, display hardware, and user/system dialogues, and was based on previously-developed checklists. The formal performance evaluation was conducted during eight days of testing and review with nine operator trainees serving as plant operators. Each of three, 3-member crews participated in 16, 30-minute trials during which plant transients were simulated. Critical crew actions were monitored by five observers, and plant parameter data were gathered automatically. Subjective data on trial difficulty (with and without ERIS) and display effectiveness were obtained from operators. The overall results supported the hypothesis that ERIS was of benefit to operators during emergency conditions.

Standard techniques and procedures have been developed for the evaluation of objective data. The recent reintroduction of the Bayesian approach [1, 2, 3] requires the development of techniques and procedures for the evaluation of subjective data [4]. The purpose of the research outlined in this paper is to develop a model by which subjective data can be evaluated. Examples will be presented to illustrate application of the model.

The effectiveness of ego-centered (moving map) and earth-centered (moving plane) displays was studied with subjects monitoring an animated aircraft situational awareness display. Other independent variables were subject experience (aircrew vs non-aircrew) and path complexity (straight vs turning). Periodically, the display blanked and probe questions were asked concerning the relationship of the aircraft to the simulated world. Questions included judgements about angles, distances, time and terrain. Simple paths elicited a 28 percent lower error rate than did complex paths. Moving map displays had a 32 percent lower error rate than moving plane displays. No other significant effects were observed. Subjective ratings by subjects after the experiment revealed unanimous preference for the moving plane display and that the moving plane condition was believed to be easier! This contradiction indicates subjective data is limited in determining display effectiveness.

An electronic wristwatch and its instruction manual were tested and evaluated against the following criteria: self-evidency, accessibility to information, and responsiveness to the user. The task was to change the time by one hour with or without using the instructions. Objective data (time/event data) and subjective data (evaluative, opinionative, and comment data) were collected by using persons with different backgrounds. The preliminary analysis of data indicated that none of the participants could do the task without the instructions. Participants reported a high degree of frustration with the use of the watch and the instructions. Overall implications are that the watch and its instructions are not compatible with the needs and limitations of the average consumer. The watch was re-designed. All the sophisticated functions were retained, but made self-evident and accessible to the user. The test-evaluation-comparison of the two watch designs is ongoing.