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Analysts claim that the demographic and economic condition of higher education are adversely affecting the academic profession and faculty careers This paper reviews the issues and problems in conceptualizations of the academic profession particularly in the division of labor into teaching and research and describes the emergence of the modern American professoriate. The paper focuses on three strands of the academic career, which have evolved at different times with different consequences for current patterns. Theories of adult and career development as they apply to faculty are criticized, and the need for and expanded sociological perspective is stressed. Finally, the consequences of and possible solutions to the unresolved combination of teaching and research in the academic profession are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A teaching portfolio (TP) is a document containing a factual description of a teacher's teaching strengths and accomplishments, allowing clinicians to display them for examination by others. The primary aim of a TP is to improve quality of teaching by providing a structure for self-reflection, which in turn aids professional development in medical education. Contents typically include a personal statement on teaching, an overview of teaching accomplishments and activities, feedback from colleagues and learners, a reflective component and some examples of teaching material. Electronic portfolios are more portable and flexible compared to paper portfolios. Clinicians gain the most benefit from a TP when it is used as a tool for self-reflection of their teaching practice and not merely as a list of activities and achievements. This article explains why and how anaesthetists might use a TP as a tool for professional development in medical education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Work redesign has recently gained attention as a possible solution for widely perceived deficiencies in the educational system. Two such strategies, reward and work structures, are often suggested as alterations in teachers' work lives that can have a positive impact on their professionalism and ultimately the lives of children. These concepts are often included in state- sponsored career-ladder plans. The purpose of this paper is to present the findings of an investigation into the impact of such a career-ladder system on outcome measures widely suggested as intermediate indicators of school effectiveness and teacher satisfaction. Data were collected from 12 schools that had implemented a career-ladder program characterized by alternative reward and work-structure incentives and 12 matching schools where such programs were absent Survey items tapped teachers' and students' opinions about school-process behaviors suggested by school-effectiveness and work-redesign literature as important for overall school and teacher health. Intermediate outcome data-on motivation, self-concept, academic futility, self-reliance, and school norms-were also collected to assess possible effects on students. Two results emerged from the data. First, when widely accepted school organizational processes are measured, the career-ladder program clearly demonstrates a positive impact on teachers and to a lesser extent on schools. Second, the career-ladder program had a differential effect on teachers at various stages of experience. Midcareer and new teachers felt more positive about the measured organizational processes within their schools than their counterparts in non-career-ladder schools. The results of this study support the utility of the work-design concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Video-supported reflection supports the professional development of student teachers and is a natural part of teacher education. The study aims to find out teacher education students' opinions about recording their teaching and analyzing it, to describe the experiences of recording and analyzing the videos, and to systematize their main areas of learning and development. Based on this, future video-based analysis tasks in teacher training could be planned more effectively. One hundred thirty-six teacher education students carrying out their teaching practicum participated in the study. Data was collected via a questionnaire after the teaching practicum (practical teaching course). The answers to the open questions were analyzed using the qualitative content analysis method, and the results of the answers to the closed questions are described using frequency indicators. The results show that the teacher education students who participated in the study expressed neutral opinions and positive expectations, as well as hesitation, uncertainty, discomfort, and fear before the first-time recording of their lesson and its analysis. For most of the study participants, the experience of recording and analyzing their lesson and observing a fellow student's lesson video was helpful and increased their self-confidence. The discussion highlights the possibilities of making the experience of video reflection more supportive and useful for teacher education students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Declining interest in psychiatry is an urgent public health issue and has been the subject of many studies. The purpose of the present paper was to survey the attitudes of senior medical students in order to explore reasons why psychiatry might be regarded as an attractive option as a career. Method: Thirty-three students from an Australian university were asked during a written examination to consider why a psychiatric career might be an attractive choice for medical recruits. Key themes were identified and qualitatively analysed from the open-ended responses to the question: 'On the basis of your clinical experience, consider why a psychiatric career is an attractive choice these days.' Results: Thematic analysis indicated that the factors influencing decisions to specialize as a psychiatrist weighted financial and lifestyle advantages. The main drawcard profile was of challenging work that affords a good lifestyle and stimulating research opportunities. Other themes such as rewarding patient interaction, holistic care and variety were also raised. Conclusion: Concern that the Australian psychiatric profession is failing to attract sufficient numbers of high-quality recruits is growing. While the majority of essays analysed in this account suggested that the students perceived psychiatry as an adequate career that affords the benefits of a balanced lifestyle, the constraining nature of the survey question compelled examinees to provide positive responses. Despite this bias, the responses are nonetheless revealing and contribute to understanding of the factors that may influence trainees to enter the field. On the whole, it would appear that the discipline is currently not exciting keen passions in medical students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This unique special issue features five articles that provide guidance for middle school special education and general education content-area co-teachers on how to implement enhanced co-teaching models including specialized literacy instruction and best practices for co-teachers (e.g., co-planning; using station teaching to differentiate instruction). The authors of each article were part of a research team that conducted a 2015–2018 development and innovation professional development project funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, Project CALI (Content Area Literacy Instruction). Project CALI resulted in the development of the CALI professional development designed to provide co-teachers guidance on how to implement a set of evidence-based literacy practices (i.e., the CALI instructional framework) to improve outcomes for students with learning disabilities (LD) in co-taught classes. Authors in this special issue use examples from the CALI professional development to illustrate each practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An account of an intellectual journey across disciplinary borders combined with a foray into new teaching methodologies that resulted in the construction of a popular course in urban history at a flagship public university that made a significant contribution to a transforming curriculum. The article discusses various obstacles to success as well as the unanticipated rewards of this experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Common content knowledge (CCK) is comprised of the knowledge of rules, techniques, and tactics and can be used to define the scope of what teachers teach in their lessons. Developing reliable and valid measures of teacher knowledge such as CCK strengthens our understanding of what teachers know and in turn the field's ability to help teachers in their practice. There are, however, few validated tests of CCK of sport for teachers. The primary purpose of this study was to provide content and concurrent validity evidence for a 19-question test of the CCK for gymnastics required in Turkish elementary and secondary schools. Participants were 240 preservice teachers who had previously taken a class in content knowledge for gymnastics in six state universities. Rasch modeling was used to evaluate the validity and reliability of the CCK gymnastics test. Results indicated good item model fit for all 19 items. High internal consistency for item difficulty and high internal consistency for person-ability were obtained. Overall analysis showed good evidence to support the validity and reliability of the CCK gymnastics test. The CCK test can be used in initial teacher education and continuing professional development to determine the CCK knowledge of preservice and inservice teachers and in turn a measure of what they learn from professional development efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The targeted reading intervention (TRI) is a professional development program for rural kindergarten and first grade classroom teachers to help them provide effective reading strategies with struggling readers. In two randomized controlled trials, the TRI was delivered two ways: (1) literacy coaches provided support for classroom teachers through face-to-face classroom meetings or (2) coaches provided support to classroom teachers through live webcam technology. The purpose this study was to examine how face-to-face versus webcam coaching was related to teacher and struggling reader outcomes. Regression results suggested greater benefits with webcam literacy coaching for teacher fidelity and efficacy. Both struggling reader groups made equivalent gains across literacy measures, although there were greater gains on one child literacy measure in the webcam group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the implementation of educational research among urban secondary schools in Malaysia. The respondents include school teachers and administrators, lecturers in education institutions, and committee members of the state education departments. Data collected from interviews were coded and analyzed using open, axial and selected coding procedures. Six core categories emerged from the data namely implementation initiative, implementation obstacles, collaboration, research knowledge, research needs, and suggestions to overcome the weaknesses. The findings showed that the quality and quantity of education research in school depend on the existence of a research culture. The findings of this study form an education research acculturation theory for research implementation in schools. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article examines teacher leader role development and definition by looking at one emergent model of distributed leadership: the hybrid teacher leader (HTL). HTLs are teachers whose official schedule includes both teaching K-12 students and leading teachers in some capacity. Participants included six HTLs across four school districts over 2 years, as well as their administrators. Extensive qualitative data were collected and subsequently analyzed, including interviews, on-site observations, and artifacts. Findings included a pervasive lack of role definition for the HTLs amid heightened organizational complexity, leading to numerous de facto definitions emerging. Conflicting de facto definitions led to diminished success for the HTLs, relationship deterioration, a reversion to professional development removed from the classroom, and a lack of capacity to account for HTL efficacy. The study concludes that for new teacher leaders to be successful, states and districts will need to much more clearly define roles and priorities and be specific about how budget-compensated teacher leader time is used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of a computerized professional development (PD) program for a concept teaching routine were investigated in two studies. For each, teachers were randomly assigned to either a virtual workshop group that used a multimedia software program for PD or an actual workshop group that participated in a live PD session. In Study 1, the teachers’ knowledge about the routine and planning for the routine significantly improved after completing either workshop; no significant differences were found between the groups. Both teacher groups were satisfied with the PD. In Study 2, the teachers’ performance of the routine in their classrooms improved, as did student performance on tests of concept knowledge. Students were satisfied with the instruction provided by both groups of teachers. No differences were found between the posttest scores earned by the teacher groups or by students of the teachers. Implications regarding computerized PD for teachers are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Growing as an educator takes hard work and commitment. It requires the educator to engage in regular, objective selfexaminations of instructional beliefs and behaviors. Although this task can be daunting, and unwieldy, due to the complexity of the teaching-learning exchange, it can also be undertaken in a systematic manner. This article proposes a framework of five elements that appear essential for assessing instructor beliefs and behaviors: content, learner, educator, social setting, and physical environment where the instruction takes place. A teaching-style audit is demonstrated to show how the systematic and thoughtful assessment of an educator's teaching philosophy and style can be undertaken. This research contributes to the professional development of marketing educators by (a) providing a unifying framework to guide reflective teaching practice and (b) proposing that an auditing approach should be used to reveal incomplete or underdeveloped areas of instructional belief and identify inconsistent or incongruent teaching styles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In talk about teacher preparation and professional development, we often hear the word practice associated with what, how, or when the learning of teaching is supposed to happen. In this article, four different conceptions of practice are investigated, and their implications for how learning teaching might be organized are explored. Rather than a comprehensive review of the literature, what is presented here is a set of ideas that draw on both past and present efforts at reform. The purpose of this essay is to provoke clarification of what we mean when we talk about practice in relation to learning teaching. The author draws on her own research on the work of teaching from the perspective of practice to represent the nature of the work and to speculate from various perspectives on how that work might be learned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attracting and retaining competent teachers is a key concern when it comes to managing the supply and demand for teachers. This article examines the motivation that prompts people to enter or leave the teaching profession with the aim of identifying a decision framework for defining teacher policies. The results are based on the teacher workforce planning system put in place by the Education Department of the Swiss Canton of Geneva. Having identified the most influential factors affecting teacher motivation, we rated these with regard to their responsiveness to policy measures in a bid to identify levers for deriving effective teacher policies. This decision framework highlights three main issues to serve as a focus for policy measures-the characteristics of the job activities, working conditions and professional image. Finally, priority policy measures have been derived from motivational inducement systems, which include task, leader ship, reward, professional development and social systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Filling the knowledge gap in the limited research on professional development leaders is an urgent issue if teacher learning is to be improved. This research and development project is studying how leaders learn to cultivate mathematically rich professional development environments. The authors adapted two frameworks from classroom-based research--sociomathematical norms and practices for orchestrating productive discussion--to support leaders' understanding of facilitation of mathematics professional development. In this article, the authors describe the use of these frameworks in their work and argue for a third framework--the mathematical knowledge for teaching. Based on the analysis of their work, they believe that mathematics professional development leaders need to cultivate particular sociomathematical norms for teacher explanation and employ practices for orchestrating discussions to achieve the purposeful development of teachers' specialized knowledge of mathematics for teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors examine the influence of autism training sessions on a group of beginning teachers. The results of the study indicate that even a limited amount of professional development and/or training, strategically placed within the confines of a teacher training program, can both significantly increase participants' perceptions and knowledge of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and evidence-based practices as well as reduce overall stress and anxiety levels, at least where the integration of ASD students into the "regular" classroom experience is specifically concerned. Although this study is Canadian in origin, autism knows no national boundaries, and the issues and concerns raised by educators in trying to successfully program for this unique group of learners appear to be overwhelmingly universal in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design and implementation of the professional development model of the New Zealand Numeracy Development Project has been successful in improving teacher knowledge and practice as well as raising student outcomes. Since 2000, more than 25,000 teachers in english-medium settings have participated in the project. In New Zealand the terms english-medium and Maori-medium are used to distinguish the language of instruction. settings have participated in the project. a content analysis across a large data set from evaluations conducted during the first four years of the project, identified three pedagogical tools that participants describe as improving their mathematics knowledge and practice: the number framework; the diagnostic interview; and the strategy teaching model. The article argues that the power of the professional development model lies in the integration of the three pedagogical tools ensuring that professional learning focuses on the core ideas of the project within the context of the teacher's classroom. This focus has enabled teachers to deepen their professional knowledge, change their instructional practice and improve their responsiveness to students' diverse learning needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous high school students, including many who are enrolled in career and technical education (CTE) courses, do not have the math skills necessary for today's high-skill workplace or college entrance requirements. This study tests a model for enhancing mathematics instruction in five high school CTE programs (agriculture, auto technology, business and marketing, health, and information technology). The model includes a pedagogy and intense teacher professional development. Volunteer CTE teachers were randomly assigned to an experimental (n =59) or control (n =78) group. The experimental teachers worked with math teachers to develop CTE instructional activities that integrated more mathematics into the occupational curriculum. After 1 year of the math-enhanced CTE lessons, students in the experimental classrooms performed equally on technical skills and significantly better than control students on two standardized tests of math ability (TerraNova and ACCUPLACER®). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature base on technology professional development for teachers reveals that there is a long way to go in understanding methods of effective practice with respect to the various impacts of these activities on teaching and learning. In the No Child Left Behind era, with programs like Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to Use Technology, the Fund for the Improvement of Post Secondary Education, and E-rate (the schools and library portion of the Universal Service Fund) that have been targeted as No Demonstrated Results, we need to move to a more systematic study of how technology integration occurs within our schools, what increases its adoption by teachers, and the long-term impacts that these investments have on both teachers and students. In addition to the findings of a comprehensive literature review, this article also articulates a systematic evaluation plan that, if implemented, will likely yield the information needed to better understand these important educational issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports the results from a 12-month study of teachers' career progress in schools in England and the ways in which headteachers and teachers perceive that age, disability, ethnicity and gender affect teachers' career prospects. Many teachers thought that they had been promoted because of their personal traits, such as drive, confidence and ability, and there was little evidence of direct discrimination. However, certain groups of teachers, for example part-time and supply staff, mature entrants to teaching, members of minority ethnic groups, teachers with disabilities, older male and female teachers, female teachers with children, all believed that their personal characteristics had disadvantaged their career progression. The study offers some insight into the structural constraints that hinder teachers' careers and how greater diversity among promoted staff in schools might be achieved. The implications for school leaders are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All those responsible for the preparation of teachers agree that having a highly qualified teacher in every classroom is essential to student academic achievement. The research of the past decade by William Sanders and others clearly demonstrates the significance of the teacher in fostering student growth and academic achievement. What researchers and practitioners are having difficulty agreeing on is the essential characteristics of the teachers who create value-added learning and the ways in which professional development experiences need to be structured in order to foster and develop those critical teacher characteristics. The Ohio Teacher Quality Partnership represents one state's approach to better understand the relationship between teacher behaviors and student achievement and how a wide variety of stake holders are collaborating to create a more vital educational system for P-12 students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comparison of three urban school systems suggests that district offices can influence teaching through professional development District leaders can structure their programs to provide coherent and content-focused professional development. The district orientation (vision, emphasis on professional development use of human resources) set by the dominant coalition of leaders--including but not limited to the Superintendent--in each district influenced the coherence and content focus of the professional development programs. District differences in their organizational capacity affected coordination and planning of professional development. The district with the most coherent focus on helping teachers develop deeper knowledge about select subject areas had the greatest teacher-reported influence on teaching practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research experimentally manipulated the social presence cues in instruc-tor's messages to students. The context was an online professional development one-credit course with one-to-one mentoring of students. Additionally, student learning intentions and levels of trust were examined as factors that may mitigate the effects of social presence. Results indicate that social presence affects the learner's interactions and perception of the instructor but has no effect on perceived learning, satisfaction, engagement, or the quality of their final course product. These findings suggest social presence is a correlational rather than a causal variable associated with student learning. Exploratory analyses suggest that trust and learning intentions are potentially important factors impacting student perceptions of the learning environment and performance in the course respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study used a prototype view of teaching as a theoretical framework to interpret, analyze, and describe the behaviors and verbal responses of three expert teachers and to determine the degree to which these three teachers share a "family resemblance" to one another. A case study that provides descriptions of what expert teachers do and say contributes to our understanding of the complexity of expertise in teaching. Analysis of data collected for this study reveals six central tendencies of the three participants. The rich descriptions and summary representations provide specific and complex profiles to inform teacher educators and professional development providers in their efforts to improve professional practice among teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After 21 years of national standards and state mandates, assessing teaching by portfolio has reached a stage of wide adoption in preservice programs. However the use of teacher portfolios to recruit, select, retain, and provide professional development seems less widespread. This pilot study shows how full implementation of teacher portfolios might be approached and studied across settings and through teachers' career spans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the past decade, the arts have been increasingly included in professional development programs for general education teachers in the United States. Little is known, however, about teachers' attitudes toward the arts in education or the applications of arts processes in their teaching practice. In this mixed-methods study, data collected from 423 K-12 teachers indicated that teachers believe the arts are important in education, but use them rarely. They are hindered by a lack of professional development and intense pressure to teach the mandated curriculum. Awareness of student diversity and the need for improved motivation and enjoyment in learning were the most frequently cited motivations for using the arts. Teachers' self-efficacy and self-image relating to creativity and artistry influenced arts use more than any other personal characteristic. Surprisingly, neither prior arts instruction, current artistic practice, nor years of teaching experience were significant predictors of arts use in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study empirically examines the management and implementation strategies that contribute to high-quality in-service teacher professional development provided by postsecondary institutions. The analysis is part of a national evaluation of the Eisenhower Professional Development Program. Findings are based on a national probability sample of Eisenhower project directors at postsecondary institutions. The authors found empirical support that management/implementation strategies--aligning standards and assessments to professional development, continuous-improvement efforts, and coordination between postsecondary institutions and school districts--were related to higher quality professional development, defined in terms of content focus, active learning opportunities, coherence, duration, collective participation, and type of activity. Thus, in the context of an evaluation of the nation's largest investment in teachers' professional development, this study provides support, from a national probability sample of postsecondary institution Eisenhower project directors, for the link between federal policies and strategies of support, implementation, and the quality of teachers 'professional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a case study in which teaching portfolios evolved as a mechanism to promote school-centered professional development in an urban elementary school. Data were primarily derived from open-ended interviews with the principal, staff developer, and teachers, complemented by other relevant documentation. This study examines the impact of the portfolio project on professional learning and professional collaboration. The data reveal that a wide range of conditions contributed to professional learning and collaboration through teaching portfolios. These conditions can be categorized into three groups: (a) conditions supporting both professional learning and professional collaboration in general, (b) conditions more specifically supporting professional learning, and (c) conditions more specifically supporting professional collaboration. The article discusses both methodology and results in the context of recent theoretical frameworks . In addition, it suggests directions for future research, theory, and practice related to school-centered professional development for teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article introduces the concept of teachers' vision-teachers' images of ideal classroom practice. Drawing from surveys of 8O teachers and interviews with 16 teachers, the author advances three dimensions that can be used to characterize visions-the focus, range, and distance. Portraits of the visions of two novice teachers help demonstrate the range of visions as well as the different roles vision plays in teachers' lives. Understanding and identifying variations in the range, distance, and focus of these two visions-along with differences in contexts-can help us see how these two teachers come to very different understandings about school and about teaching and learning. The article concludes with an exploration of how the concept of vision might provide novice teachers with a tool that may help them surface and interrogate their beliefs, identify steps to promising practices, and even assist them in selecting contexts in which they can thrive and flourish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article first describes the Japanese professional development practice of lesson study and its articulation within the Japanese educational system. Next, insights gained from an empirical study that explored the feasibility of lesson study in a U.S. setting are discussed. More specifically, challenges to lesson study practice are highlighted, with particular attention paid to the difficulties faced by American teachers in trying to adopt the research focus that is inherent in lesson study. The article concludes with reflections about what the study of lesson study can teach us about efforts to improve teaching, which, like lesson study, center on having teachers examine their practice or that of others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is a response to ‘Collaboration as Dialogue: Teachers and Researchers Engaged in Conversation and Professional Development’ (Clark et al., 1996), a narrative account of teacher-researcher collaborative research presented in Readers Theater format. The authors identified a powerful value tension in collaborative research—the unequal benefits that accrue to classroom teachers and academics engaged in research and publication—and suggested that this inequity could be surmounted by collaboration in the form of dialogue. Although the authors argued against generalizing from their experience or constructing an integrative theory, their observations are concordant with other collaborative situations where inequality exists. Our response proposes ways to address the issues they have identified without losing the power of a theoretical analysis. We contend that, by looking for commonalities and differences across settings, last, working methods goats, and values, a framework for understanding collaboration can be constructed that preserves the benefits of rich descriptive accounts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article clarifies the image of skills, pedagogy, and content that typify current practice in skill teaching. Two critical issues are raised: Skill learning does not carry over well to later situations, and managerial skills are more complex and divergent than current practice implies. Five changes to improve university skill teaching are proposed: (a) Shift emphasis from developing managerial skills to developing skillful managers, (b) emphasize effective inductive learning, (c) develop the ability to interface synergistically deductive and inductive learning processes, (d) develop an effectiveness-based and minimally prompted skill-assessment process, and (e) broaden the scope of the skill-learning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The knowledge base about the professional development of teachers has been confused with the research on teacher effectiveness. Although teaching and teacher education are intimately related, they are also separate. The authors describe the differences between the two phenomena and discuss the implications of research findings for teacher education programs. Further, Zimpher and Ashburn assert that the study of the professional development of teachers will proceed in a more systematic, comprehensive, and effective manner if that research is informed by multiple conceptions of the world. These conceptions allow for differing and at times competing research directions, and they can serve to stimulate a research agenda responsive to the complex nature of teacher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions concerning the abilities and background experiences of prospective teachers dominate the recent professional literature. Book. Freeman and Brousseau shed additional light on this topical area. A comparison of the academic and social backgrounds and the bases for career decisions of teaching and non-teaching majors at a major university indicates that students choosing teaching as a career (a) are as academically competent as their non-teaching counterparts (b) are more concerned about helping others and (c) are less concerned about salaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an abstract of the speech by Arthur L. Benson, director of teacher examinations of the Educational Teaching Service, delivered at the 34th Annual Spring Conference of the Eastern States Association of Professional School for Teachers in New York City on March 29, 1959. He discussed the role of objective and standardized tests in promoting the development of a prospective teacher. He also emphasized that teaching is a profession where teachers should have a body of knowledge that non-members don't have, and that the acquisition of this knowledge needs a relatively long period of study and preparation.