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This semester-long research project examined the use of social studies trade books to thematically teach about six individuals who served as change agents in the United States during the late 19th century and early 20th century. Three of the individuals were African American men, Robert Smalls, Frederick Douglass, and John Roy Lynch, who took civic action to address racial discrimination faced by the Black community in the half century following the U.S. Civil War. The other three indivduals were women women, Ida B. Wells, Clara Lemlich, and Jane Addams, who challenged social inequities and injustices within their communities. Over the course of the semester-long research project, sixth-grade U.S. history students read selected trade books, examined primary sources, completed graphic organizers, and crafted writing assessments about each of the six individuals. Students demonstrated complex historical thinking, integrated economic and civic thinking, and communicated thematic ideas of systemic oppression of minorities, women, and the poor. They struggled to make connections between examples of historic oppression and contemporary examples of societal oppression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

School underachievement is a persistent problem in the United States. Direct-to-student, computer-delivered growth-mindset interventions have shown promise as a way to improve achievement for students at risk of failing in school; however, these interventions benefit only students who happen to be in classrooms that support growth-mindset beliefs. Here, we tested a teacher-delivered growth-mindset intervention for U.S. adolescents in Grades 6 and 7 that was designed to both impart growth-mindset beliefs and create a supportive classroom environment where those beliefs could flourish (N = 1,996 students, N = 50 teachers). The intervention improved the grades of struggling students in the target class by 0.27 standard deviations, or 2.81 grade percentage points. The effects were largest for students whose teachers endorsed fixed mindsets before the intervention. This large-scale, randomized controlled trial demonstrates that growth-mindset interventions can produce gains when delivered by teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ninety-two Japanese elementary school sixth-graders (46 boys and 46 girls; 11-12 years old) learned the quota system as part of gender equality education. We used a group performance implicit association test (Mori, Uchida, and Imada, 2008) to evaluate the lesson's effect by assessing the children's image of "woman" before and after the class. The results showed that the image of "woman" among boys improved significantly from neutral to positive through the lesson. We also found that girls' implicit image of "woman" was statistically higher than that of boys before learning, and was raised considerably after the class. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyses the relative incidence of visual-motor processes compared to other cognitive processes involved in spelling, to understand its relevance in orthography acquisition in school-aged children when contextual variables are controlled for and there has been explicit instruction. A sample of 96 students between third and sixth grade of primary education was divided into two groups according to their spelling performance (low and high performance). They were all assessed in rapid naming, vocabulary, visual and auditory working memory, visual-motor integration and intelligence. Results show that visual-motor integration and auditory working memory differentiate the low and high performance groups, being the variables that best predict spelling. The relationship between auditory working memory and visual-motor integration appears to establish when the word is being incorporated into the child's lexicon. These results have important educational implications referred to teaching spelling through handwriting when its use is being debated against the use of digital technologies for writing acquisition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to seek to understand and describe the experiences of sixth grade students, ages 11 and 12, taking part in the published Paralympic School Day (PSD) programme in relation to shaping attitudes and perceptions of disability and disability sport. This qualitative study utilized a phenomenological approach. Fifty-two students were purposively sampled, after taking part in a PSD event. Data from reflective writing responses were collected and analysed inductively using a three-step approach. The analysis revealed three interrelated themes: (a) 'just like the rest of us': participants' new relatedness to those with disabilities; (b) 'what it means to be normal': challenging the idealized notion of normal; and (c) 'PSD changed my view of disabled people': a shift in paradigm. As the participants interacted with and learned from athletes with disabilities in a purposeful manner, they came to understand that disability was not synonymous with other-ness. This study provided new depth to our understanding of how participants experience PSD programmes, including profundities related to paradigm shifts, aha moments, and the meaning of normal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the results of a study of local education agency (LEA)-based interventions to improve the reading outcomes of struggling readers in sixth grade. The sample included 1,076 intervention students and 3,644 comparison students. Regression discontinuity was used to evaluate intervention impact. The study contributes to the field by demonstrating (a) the importance of conducting rigorous evaluations of existing school interventions to understand the true impact of evidence-based practices when implemented under local circumstances and constraints, and (b) the use of regression discontinuity as an evaluation design is feasible within typical school settings. Implications for the study are discussed, especially in terms of providing a model for evaluation of LEA-driven interventions in the middle grades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effect on the learning and motivation of students of a flipped classroom environment enriched with technology. A mixed research design using a pretest or posttest experimental model, combined with qualitative data, was conducted in a public middle school in Turkey for 2 weeks (three class hours) within a science course. Participants consisted of two groups of sixth-grade students. A variety of electronic materials to support a flipped classroom environment was distributed to students in the experimental group 3 days before the class. Before the normal class hour, the basic outline of the subject was discussed with the students, problem situations were created and solutions suggested, issues that were not understood were focused on, and, most importantly, student-teacher interaction was carried out at the highest level. It was determined that the flipped classroom yielded both greater academic achievement and greater motivation compared with the control group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of cooperative learning on the science lessons achievement of primary school students and to designate their views on cooperative learning process. 135 sixth-grade students attending the same school took part in the study. The model of this study was the Solomon four-group model. In the study, the Cooperative Learning Process Scale and the Science Achievement Test were used to collect data. In the light of the findings, the cooperative learning activities done in the experimental group have meaningfully increased the student achievement in comparison to the control group. According to the findings, it was determined that the activities were prepared appropriately to the cooperative learning and that they were organised considering the basic principles of cooperative learning. 85.07 per cent of the students have stated that the activities done were appropriate for high level cooperative learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The psychometric properties of the Student Motivation and Learning Strategies Inventory (SMALSI) were examined using a sample of 404 Grade 6 students from an urban Canadian school system. Students completed the SMALSI and school factors included final school grades, attendance records, and language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies results from Provincial Achievement Tests (PATs). Confirmatory factor analysis of SMALSI demonstrated less than adequate fit for each individual SMALSI factor though with some covariance of similar items, the model fit approached acceptable limits for most factors. Results generally confirmed that the SMALSI subscales were significantly related to all of the achievement variables including PAT results and final school grades. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that writing and research skills, test-taking skills, low motivation, and test anxiety all contributed to the prediction of PAT results. Test anxiety was a significant predictor of achievement across all subject areas. Canadian Grade 6 students demonstrated lower motivation, less test anxiety, and fewer attention problems but were otherwise comparable with the U.S. sample. Results provide convergent evidence supporting the psychometric properties of the SMALSI with a Canadian sample; however, there is some room to improve the overall model fit in subsequent revisions of this measure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigated the cognitive demands of reading curricula from 1910 to 2000. We considered both the nature of the text used and the comprehension tasks asked of students in determining the cognitive demands of the curricula. Contrary to the common assumption of a trend of simplification of the texts and comprehension tasks in third- and sixth-grade curricula, the results indicate that curricular complexity declined early in the century and leveled off over the middle decades but has notably increased since the 1970s, particularly for the third-grade curricula. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A systematic analysis and comparison was conducted of the psychometric properties of standard (paper-and-pencil) and computerized sociometry and peer assessments. The standard assessment took place with 817 children (47.5% boys) in 34 fifth- and sixth-grade classrooms of 28 elementary schools. The computerized assessment took place with 893 children (52.3% boys) in 35 fifth- and sixth-grade classrooms of 30 elementary schools. The computerized method yielded more nominations given and received and fewer missing data. Correlations among behavioural and relational constructs followed similar patterns in both methods, but were generally stronger in the computerized method. Voter agreement was the same in both methods. The computerized method resulted in higher internal consistency of sociometric and peer assessment constructs. The methods were validated by predicting preference and popularity from behavioural and relational characteristics. The two methods yielded the same pattern of results. The advantages and disadvantages of both assessment methods were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2006, the Finnish Ministry of Education mandated our research group to develop an antibullying program for comprehensive schools. The new program, KiVa, includes both universal and indicated actions to reduce bullying. The present study reports the effects of KiVa on nine different forms of being bullied in a sample of 5,651 fourth to sixth graders from 78 schools (39 intervention, 39 control). The findings showed positive effects on each form of being bullied assessed. After 9 months of intervention, control school students were 1.32— 1.94 times as likely to be bullied as students in intervention schools. A well-designed, research-based program can thus reduce multiple forms of being bullied, and there might be no need to develop specific programs for different forms of bullying. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The relationship between learning environment characteristics and academic engagement of 777 Grade 6 children located in 41 learning environments was explored. Questionnaires were used to tap learning environment perceptions of children, their academic engagement, and their ethnic-cultural background. The basis of the learning environment questionnaire was the International System for Teacher Observation and Feedback (ISTOF). Factor analysis indicated three factors: the teacher as a helpful and good instructor (having good instructional skills, clear instruction), the teacher as promoter of active learning and differentiation, and the teacher as manager and organizer of classroom activities. Multilevel analysis indicated that about 12% of the differences in engagement between children was related to the learning environment. All the mentioned learning environment characteristics mattered, but the teacher as a helpful, good instructor was most important followed by the teacher as promoter of active learning and differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

TASC, DISCOVER, PBL, and Prism models were integrated and applied in a Community Awareness Unit designed for sixth grade. The students listed different problems they considered important in their community and then selected a theme that was of the greatest interest to them: The effects of alcohol on the community. The teacher wrote a problem based scenario to explain the theme and the students divided into six stakeholder groups to investigate and gather information on the essential question from their stakeholder group's viewpoint. At the end they presented their results to their peers and the community. The students developed realistic solutions to a community problem that affected all of them. The students gained valuable skills from the required curriculum as outlined in the Arizona State Standards in language arts, science, math, and technology. They applied these skills and concepts in an integrated way and exercised their creative problem solving abilities to propose innovative solutions to persistent problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elementary students of advanced intellect are not being adequately challenged in mathematics classrooms. The implications discussed in this theoretical paper are: teachers must carefully analyze curricular choices to see that they match closely with needs of academically advanced students; students need conceptual understanding of algorithms that can be fostered with authentically challenging tasks; and textbook tasks alone may not suffice to adequately challenge academically advanced students in elementary mathematics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relatively little is known about the prevalence of physical dating violence behaviors and perceived norms about dating violence among early adolescents. A sample of 5,404 sixth-grade students was recruited from four diverse U.S. sites. Over half of the respondents reported that girls hitting their boyfriends was acceptable under certain circumstances (e.g., if made mad or jealous) and more than one in four reported acceptance of boys hitting their girlfriends. Among those reporting that they had a recent boy/ girlfriend, nearly one third of girls (31.5%) and more than one fourth of boys (26.4%) reported being physically aggressive toward this person (e.g., punching, slapping). These data support the need to address the problem of violence within students' perceived dating relationships in sixth grade or earlier and suggest that preventive interventions should focus on changing norms that support violence between males and females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an effort to address the NCLB-mandated testing process, one of the issues to be considered is how best to configure student populations to maximize all aspects of the educational setting while simultaneously maximizing student achievement; one aspect is grade span configuration. We examined the relationship between the grade span configuration of all schools in Arkansas attended by sixth-grade students and the academic achievement of the combined population of students as measured by the Arkansas Benchmark Examination. We found no relationship between grade span configuration and academic achievement as measured by the Arkansas Benchmark Examination for sixth-grade students. However, the nonsignificant findings do not negate the importance of the study. The results imply that there are other factors that are affecting scores in the middles grades. The results of the study also revealed that over the time span examined, mathematics Benchmark achievement rose but the results for literacy were stagnant. These results suggest that newly implemented practices or other factors may have improved mathematics achievement, but not achievement in literacy. Grade span configuration alone does not account for sixth-grade students' academic achievement as measured by the Arkansas Benchmark Examination. Decisions about campus configurations include other factors such as projected enrollments, transportation costs, size of schools, school goals, fiscal constraints, political tensions, geographic realities, and financial accountability. As student populations shift, educational leaders can look for grade span configurations that best fit their community culture and current facilities, focusing financial resources on other means of improving academic achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to fit theoretical models of prediction to students' decisions to enroll and persist in urban middle school band programs using independent variables of academic achievement, socioeconomic status (SES), family structure, mobility, ethnicity, and gender. Two models were fitted to the data using logistic regression analysis techniques. One predicted initial enrollment (i.e., sixth grade); the other predicted retention (i.e., eighth grade). Academic achievement and family structure emerged as the only significant predictors of initial enrollment decisions. Higher academically achieving students and those from two-parent or two-guardian homes were more likely to begin band instruction. Higher academically achieving students and those from two-parent or two-guardian homes also were more likely to persist in band, as were students from higher SES and females. Comparisons between models suggest slight differences in the nonmusic factors affecting initial enrollment and retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A developmental writing scale for timed essay-writing performance was created on the basis of automatically computed indicators of writing fluency, word choice, and conventions of standard written English. In a large-scale data collection effort that involved a national sample of more than 12,000 students from 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th grade, students wrote (in 30-min sessions) up to four essays in two modes of writing on topics selected from a pool of 20 topics. Scale scores were created by combining essay indicators in a standard way to compute essay scores that shared the same scoring standards across essay prompts and student grade levels. A series of ancillary analyses and studies were conducted to examine the validity of scale scores. Crossclassified random effects modeling of scores confirmed that the particular prompts on which essays are written have little effect on scores. The reliability of scores was found to be higher compared to previous reliability estimates of human essay scores. A human scoring experiment confirmed that the developmental sensitivity of scale scores and human scores was similar. A longitudinal study confirmed the expected gains in scores over a 1-year period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implications of temporal distance on motivation-related concepts were examined. The results of an experiment, based on 585 Grade 6 students, indicated that both positive (approach) and negative (avoidance) motivation increased as the future goal or event approached in time. This increase in approach and avoidance motivation influenced the performance of the pupils differently. For pupils with success orientation, the performance increased. For pupils with failure orientation, the performance remained about the same. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study deals with the effects of teaching based on Mosston and Ashtworth's reciprocal style on primary school sixth-grade students' attitudes toward physical education lessons. The study used a pretest-posttest control group design on 37 students from two sixth-grade classes at Demirlibahçe primary school, Ankara, Turkey. The study lasted 14 weeks, for which an attitude scale with three dimensions was developed that measured students' attitudes toward physical education lessons before and after the experiment. The main findings of the research are as follows: There were meaningful differences between two groups regarding the interest in the lesson and the motivation during the lesson, although in regard to the gain dimension, there was no difference observed between groups. The reciprocal style is nonetheless an effective teaching method, especially for female students with low ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of harmonic accompaniment on the tonal improvisations of elementary school students. Specifically, this study was designed to (a) determine if the addition of a root melody accompaniment to song instruction affects the implied harmonic changes and harmonic rhythm in the tonal improvisations of students in first through sixth grade and (b) determine whether age affects the tonal improvisation scores of students in first through sixth grade. Results indicated that students who received song instruction with root melody accompaniment received significantly higher tonal improvisation rating scores than those students who did not have such instruction. No statistical difference was found for the main effect of grade level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extant literature on the social functioning of students with learning disabilities (LD) has indicated that whereas a majority belong to peer groups, a higher proportion are isolated and most have lower social status among peers in general than their typically achieving classmates. Although some work has examined these issues over short-term longitudinal studies, none to date have examined them over extensive time periods. Toward this end, the current study examined a sample of 1,361 students (678 girls and 683 boys; 55 with LD) using multiple measures of peer social functioning assessed each semester from spring of third grade through fall of sixth grade. The results indicated that whereas students with LD were similar to their typically achieving peers in terms of group functioning and characteristics, they were viewed as lower in social standing among their classmates as a whole. These effects were maintained over time, indicating that long-term inclusion may not substantially affect peer social functioning among students with LD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the relationship of different assignment structures (i.e., teacher-constructed and student-constructed) on the achievement patterns of 6th-grade gifted and advanced students in a Southwest suburban school. Through a descriptive case study design (Berg, 2004; Merriam, 1988), an action research approach (Stringer, 2004) and self-study methods, the teacher-researcher explored student perception of control, and its influence on motivation (i.e., achieving and underachieving performance patterns) for different assignment structures. Findings indicate that gifted underachievers and advanced underachievers, alike, preferred the student-constructed assignment structure and self-assessment. The majority of gifted achievers and advanced achievers preferred the student-constructed assignment structure as well; however, they were evenly divided on their preference of the teacher assessment and the self-assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A teacher and a teacher assistant, working together in an inclusive grade-six classroom, provided an invaluable insider perspective on the kind of context that leads to effective support for all students. Findings from this case study revealed five ways in which the teacher could facilitate the work of the teacher assistant, by: 1) focusing on relationship building (nudging instead of nagging); 2) monitoring the amount of teacher talk to afford mini-lessons; 3) applying the basics of differentiation and universal design; 4) negotiating classroom management roles and sharing responsibilities for students; and 5) using an action-oriented format to shape the communication agenda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study, which explores elementary students' perceptions of high-stakes testing through the use of drawings and writings. 225 third through sixth graders from five elementary schools took part in the study. The students were asked to draw and write about their recent testing experience as a part of daily classroom activities. Data were analyzed using constant comparative analysis. Nine categories were made from the themes in student drawings and written descriptions: Emotions, Easy, Content Areas, Teacher Role, Student Metaphors, Fire, Power/Politics, Adult Language and Culture of Testing. These categories were supported by drawings and written descriptions. Emotions was the most frequent category that emerged through data analysis. The recurring words that expressed emotions included nervous, mad, sad, frustrated, hate, confused, bored, tired, sweating and sleepy. This study suggests that teachers could play different roles in test preparation, as comforters and coaches. These roles, reported by only a few students, helped children deal with their anxiety related to testing.

Sixth-grade students with and without mild disabilities participated in an eight-week project-based investigation about immigration to the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Students' investigations were designed to promote their understanding of the perspectives of immigrants and Americans who opposed immigration, as well as the “ways of life” that gave impetus to immigration and often resulted in conflict between these groups. At the conclusion of these investigations, students were assigned the role of the immigrants or opponents of immigration and were asked to debate the desirability of immigration to the United States during this historical period. The primary focus of this article is on the opportunities afforded by, and the limitations of, these classroom debates. The debates promoted high levels of engagement and equal participation by students with and without disabilities as well as by boys and girls. Analyses of content and structure showed that students' discourse was influenced by the knowledge they gained during their investigations, but the use of this knowledge was shaped by the competitive rhetorical goal of defending a particular viewpoint. Later rounds of the debates were more balanced and drew more on the breadth of available knowledge than did earlier rounds. Overall, the debates were more typical of everyday arguments than academic arguments. The implications of our findings for the design of instructional opportunities in the social studies in inclusive classrooms are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the performance and construction of subjectivities of four early adolescent, sixth-grade girls in book club groups in the U.S. The ethnographic inquiry investigates reading as a component of experience and therefore a practice used in construction of the self. Furthermore, the two aspects of the relation between literacy and subjectivity are discussed. By recognizing the importance of self in determining response to literature, literacy critics describe a primary identity which stands as an invariant which provides the transformation of adolescent girls.

The article focuses on the study that examines the gendered frame of reference of sixth grade pupils by analyzing the bias in their memories of a feminist folktale that comprised male and female characters with both traditional and nontraditional attributes in the U.S. Results of the study found a significant difference between the boys and girls with regard to nontraditional traits. The analysis revealed two aspects of gender relations including physical strength of men and dependence of women on men.

In order to investigate elementary children's understanding of historical time, we conducted open-ended interviews with 58 children from kindergarten through sixth grade. In order to overcome the limitations of previous research in this area, we asked children to place pictures from various periods of American history in order and to talk about their reasoning. We found that even the youngest children made some basic distinctions in historical time and that those became increasingly differentiated with age. Dates, however, had little meaning for children before third grade, and, although third and fourth graders understood the numerical basis of dates, only by fifth grade did students extensively connect particular dates with specific background knowledge. At all ages, children `s placement of most pictures revealed substantial agreement with one another and with the correct order; this agreement indicates a significant body of understanding of historical chronology. History instruction in the elementary grades, then, might productively focus on helping students refine and extend the knowledge they have gained about history; information which relies on dates, however, is unlikely to activate their temporal understanding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Science educators have long been concerned that many students fail to engage in academic tasks with the goal of achieving better understanding of science. This study examined two research questions. First, what patterns of students' task engagement emerge as they work on science classroom tasks? Second. how are patterns of students' task engagement related to factors involving their cognition (i. e., knowledge and achievement), motivation (e.g., goals in science class), and affect (i. e., attitudes toward science)? The study involved 12 sixth- grade students in two class rooms where the teachers and instructional mate- rials provided students with extensive support to understand science better. The results indicated that some students recognized the value of science learning and demonstrated high quality of cognitive engagement, whereas others pursued alternative agendas. The results are used to explore two research traditions that offer different explanations for the failure of students' engagement: (a) cognitive science or conceptual change research and (b) motivation research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aggregate data on grade-retention rates in 1st through 12th grades, from 12 American states for the year 1979–80, and 11 for 1985–86, were examined for across-grade patterns. The results were as follows: (a) The pattern of the rate magnitude distribution in the first six grades strongly suggests a negative growth exponential function as the target population of potential retainees is ‘depleted‘ across the grades; (b) the retention rate magnitudes show a pronounced tendency to peak at the beginning of each level of schooling ;(elementary, middle or junior high, high school; (c) shifts in the magnitude of the peaks following the change front a junior high to a middle school configuration support the preceding finding; and (d) both logically and empirically, a rather simple mathematical model fits the patterns quite well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted two studies to examine the effects of changing educational environments on children's academic self-concepts and motivation. In the first study, we examined the effects of transitions to a new grade or a new school on children's perceptions of their scholastic competence, their motivational orientation, and their anxiety and general affect about school performance. Four groups of children were examined longitudinally as they made the transition to a new grade, some changing schools and some remaining in the same school: (a) fifth to sixth grade, same school; (b) fifth to sixth grade, new school; (c) sixth to seventh grade, same school; and (d) sixth to seventh grade, new school. We hypothesized that many students would reevaluate their scholastic competence after a transition, given new social comparison groups and the possible increased emphasis on grades and competence evaluation in higher grades. Resultant changes in perceived competence, in turn, should impact motivational orientation, anxiety, and affect. As we predicted, we found changes in perceived competence across the transition to be related to changes in motivation and to school-related affect and anxiety after the transition. In the second study, we examined whether the hypothesized grade-related changes in the educational environment were actually experienced by children. The large majority of middle school students in our sample did report an increasing emphasis on grades. competition, and performance evaluation with each new grade, fostering greater focus on their own competence. These children reported relatively more extrinsic motivational orientation and higher levels of scholastic anxiety and viewed academic success as more important than did their peers, who rated the environment to be less performance focused. Children's affective reactions to their academic performance were also related to both their perceptions of competence and their motivational orientations. Overall, our findings suggest that changing emphases in the educational environment, of which children seem to be well aware, have complicated academic outcomes, depending on the individual resources children bring with them into the school environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compared teachers' and classes' perceptions of the actual and preferred classroom environment in 78 sixth grade classes in Israel. The Classroom Environment Scale (CES) (Moos & Trickett, 7974) was administered, and similarities between the perceptions of teachers and classes were found, particularly pertaining to the preferred or ideal classroom. The teachers and classes differed most in their respective perceptions of the real classroom. The validity of the CES and the relationship between the organizational factor of classroom seating arrangement and the environment perceptions were explored. The results of this study were discussed in relation to previous research conducted in different cultural settings. Implications of the consistent finding of teacher and student agreement on the characteristics of the ideal setting and means of implementing the comparison of teachers' and classes' perceptions of the classroom environment were suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One hundred fourteen sixth graders participated in a study designed to test the effects of a learner-control strategy involving choice of elaborative material in a computer-based tutorial. An Options treatment in which children were allowed to choose a variety of types of elaborative material was contrasted with two program-control treatments, including one in which all the elaborative material from the Options treatment was mandatory (Full treatment) and the other in which students saw only a core presentation but no elaborative material (Lean treatment). A second variable in the study was level of task persistence. Four levels of task persistence were created based on initial task behavior. Students within each of these four task persistence groups were randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups. A multivariate repeated measures analysis of covariance (using reading ability as the covariate) was conducted on immediate and retention posttests. Results showed that under both program-control treatments, persistence was curvilinearly related to performance; that is, extremely high and low persistence groups performed more poorly than did medium persistence groups. Under the learner-control treatment, however, the highest task persistence groups performed best. Additionally, when amount of material seen was controlled for, the learner-control treatment group outperformed the program-control groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children's self-perceptions of ability may reflect assessments of their effort and good conduct as well as academic performance. Determinants of ability judgments were assessed in 158 second and sixth graders by examining intercorrelations among self-ratings of ability, effort, and conduct and by exploring criteria used for these judgments. In general, ability was linked to effort and effort to conduct, but not ability to conduct, in either ratings or judgment criteria. Children generally used absolute standards in judging ability and did so almost exclusively in judging effort and conduct. The meaning and interrelationship of children's ability, effort, and conduct self-perceptions did not differ substantially by grade or sex. The results suggest that children's judgments of ability, effort, and conduct are interrelated but distinguishable. The pattern of results points to the importance of further attention to the impact of classroom context on children iv judgments of ability, effort, and conduct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the effects of membership in the same ability group on student friendships. We argue that assignment to the same instructional group increases opportunities for student interaction, underscores student similarities, and produces new similarities, and that these factors foster friendship. The relationship between grouping and friendship is examined in a longitudinal data set containing information on students in 110 reading groups in 32 classrooms of fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. The results show that the density of best friend choices within ability groups increases over time, the overlap between ability groups and cliques increases over time, and membership in the same ability group has a positive effect on the probability that a student will choose a peer as best friend. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of two types of structured academic conflict, controversy and debate, were compared with individual study on a number of dependent variables. Seventy-two sixth grade students were assigned to conditions on a stratified random basis controlling for sex, reading ability, and handicapping conditions. In all three conditions students studied a controversial issue with materials representing both pro and con views. In the controversy condition each learning group was divided into two pairs representing the pro and con sides. In the debate condition each member of a learning group was assigned a pro or con position to represent in a debate with the other three members. in the individualistic condition subjects were told to learn the material without interacting with other students, and each student was given all the pro and con materials. The results indicate that controversy promotes the most verbal rehearsal and exchange of the assigned material, the most concern that all students master she assigned material, the most active search for more information about the topic being studied, the most reevaluation of one's position and the most attitude change, the most liking for the subject matter and the instructional experience, the highest self-esteem, and the most accepting and supportive relationships among handicapped and nonhandicapped students. The debate condition generated higher levels of these dependent variables than did individualistic study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ubiquity of oral and written questions in classrooms and reading tasks has been well established. It is obvious that students' background knowledge is a primary determinant of how well they can answer comprehension-promoting or assessment-oriented questions. Less obvious is the need to access appropriate sources of information used in answering questions. A training study was conducted with 59 sixth grade students of high, average, and low reading ability levels, instructing half of students in each ability level in the relationship of a question, she text to which the question refers, and the reader's knowledge base. Repeated measures multivariate analyses of variance on two passages indicate that the training enhanced students' understanding of task demands of questions and their answer quality as measured by (a) their ability to correctly identify the question-answer relationship represented, (b) their consistency in providing an answer from the source of information they had indicated they were using, and (c) the quality of their answers. The training appeared to be most facilitative for those of average and lower ability levels, consistent with similar findings in other studies that trained cognitive skills. Knowledge of Sources of information may be fundamental to students' ability to access appropriate information for answering comprehensive questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compared nonverbal behaviors associated with classroom con versa! ion in fifth and sixth grade classes in Mississippi choctaw Indian and predominantly white, middle-class public schools. Eleven class sessions, organized using a switchboard participation structure, were videotaped to provide comparative data on a variety of nonverbal behaviors a. e., student utterances, turn-switching pauses, listener-gaze, butting-in interrupt ions, individual as opposed to choral speaking, and teacher utterances and switching pauses). Two cameras recorded the data. One camera provided a view of the teacher and the class, and the second camera provided the listener-gaze of individual students. choctaw students spoke individually less often (p < .01), used shorter utterances (p < .01), interrupted the teacher more often (p < .01), and, while the teacher was talking gazed more at peers (p < .05) than their Anglo counterparts. Teachers in the choctaw classrooms had longer turn-switching pauses (p < .05), asked more questions (p < .01), and used shorter utterances to ask questions of individual students (p < .01). The results supported the hypothesis that cultural differences in nonverbal behavior are associated with classroom interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the factors contributing to our incomplete understanding of motivation in elementary school classrooms is that most motivational research is conducted within one of several independent or competing strands, each focused on different variables. This concern was addressed by investigating interrelationships among motivational variables drawn from locus of control (LOC) theory (locus of control, incentive value) and from attribution theory (self-concept of ability, expectancy of success, causal attributions), along with measures of school achievement. The research sample consisted of 423 students in 21 fourth through sixth grade classrooms. Motivational instruments were administered to groups of students in their own classrooms, and achievement data were extracted from existing school files. Correlational and multiple regression analyses yielded limited and partial support for predictions within the LOC and attribution theories, respective! v. Analyses of relationships across theories provided some clarification of targeted conceptual issues, including the meaning of perceived control, the distinction between ability and effort motivational factors. and the role of incentive value in motivational processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This developmental study was designed to examine the effects of field dependence-independence and level of operational development on the reading achievement of sixth, seventh, and eighth graders. An analysis of covariance was performed on the reading achievement test scores. Field dependence-independence had no significantly effect on students' reading achievement, but high-operational students scored significantly higher than low-operational students on all of the tests. The educational implications of the findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study addresses three themes that recur in the research on student achievement. (a) developmental modeling of intraindividual changes in achievement over time; (b) examination of the differences among subgroups within a classroom in the determinants of achievement; (c) description of the interactions among instructional variables in determining achievement differences. Eight classrooms were preselected on the basis of their widely differing slopes obtained in a regression analysis of pre- and posttest achievement scores. Mathematics achievement differences among sixth graders were analyzed in a four-wave design and explained by aptitude and instructional variables in a structural equation framework provided by LISREL. The results demonstrate the local nature of achievement models in that neither their measurement nor structural components proved generalizable across both groups of classrooms. Mention is also made, however, of technical problems and analytical ambiguities in the interpretation of these results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eighty-five sixth grade students were randomly assigned to either a traditional instruction or a systems instructional group and were subsequently blocked according to sex and ethnicity. Each group received mathematics instruction for 8 months. Year-end skill assessment indicated no instructional group differences for whole numbers, adding decimals, or subtracting decimals subtests. However, significant differences were found between Anglo and Hispanic students on these subtests. For adding fractions and subtracting fractions subtests, significant differences were found related to both instructional group and ethnic group, with instructional systems yielding higher scores than traditional instructional classes, and Anglos earning higher test scores than Hispanics. Sex of student was not found to influence mathematics skill attainment The results suggest that instructional systems may be most effective for Anglo and Hispanic students when the criterion task is not heavily influenced by the acquisition of prerequisite skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effectiveness of a supervised cross-age tutoring program in mathematics operations was assessed using 51 grade-six children and 25 grade-five children who tutored 51 grade-three and 25 grade-two children on a one-to-one basis for 30 minutes per day, four days per week over five weeks. Twenty-four grade-six and 31 grade-three children (within-school controls) and 18 grade-six, 21 grade-five, 32 grade-three and 32 grade-two children (noncontact school controls) did not take part in the tutoring program. Assessments were undertaken for the 152 experimental group children and the 158 controls prior to, and following the tutoring program to measure mathematics-operations and other mathematics achievements. Self-esteem of tutors and nontutors, and the reactions of tutors, tutees, relevant teachers and parents were also assessed. The fifth and sixth grade tutors effectively increased the operational mathematics achievements of their tutees: the increases in tutors' and tutees' mathematics achievements being significantly greater than those of the control children. Tutors were superior to nontutors in "operations" and "other" mathematics, whereas tutees were superior to nontutees only in mathematics operations, the focus of the program. Additional analyses showed that tutors' pre-intervention mathematics abilities were not significantly related to tutees' achievements in operations, nor was the self-esteem of tutors appreciably affected by their tutoring experience. Reactions to the program from tutors, tutees, parents and teachers were generally favourable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of a computer-assisted instruction (CAI) program on basic skills achievement and attitudes toward instruction of Spanish-speaking migrant children. The study used two comparable groups of third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grade, Spanish- speaking migrant children. One group used CAl to supplement instruction while the second group served as a control. The academic achievement gains and attitudes of the groups were compared. Children (256) were administered the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills twice during 1 year and a Students' Attitude Instrument at the end of the year. The results indicated that students who used the CAI program had greater achievement gains than did students who participated in the regular classroom program. However, students who were in the non-CAI program had more favorable attitudes toward CAI than did students in the CAl program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three self-report manures of self-concept were administered in counter- balanced order to 488 sixth grade children as the basis for a multitrait- multimethod study of self-concept measurement. The subscales on these instruments were clustered into facets representing physical, social, and academic self-concept. The analyses indicate that all three facets demonstrate some degree of convergent validity, particularly physical self-concept, but discriminant validity is not established. Results also indicate that the response requirements of the instruments affect construct interpretations. Although developers of set-concept inventories strongly imply the existence of significantly different facets of self-concept by the separation and naming of subscales, there is little evidence for this implication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forty-two brain injured and 42 non brain injured sixth grade boys were administered reading achievement tests under three visual and three auditory distraction conditions. The results indicated that (a) the overall performance was higher for the non brain injured group, and (b) increased amounts of visual and/or auditory distraction did not result in significantly lower scores for either group. It is concluded that many assumptions concerning stimulus control and teaching materials and methodology for brain injured children of this age group should be questioned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on a study conducted in a self contained classroom of highly talented sixth grade children at the Skylark School in Garden Grove, California, during the 1965-1966 school year. In the Garden Grove Unified School District there were 18 major work classes comprising children whose Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test scores were in excess of 130. The sixth grade class in the project was a high cluster group in which 12 students scored above 130 on the Stanford-Binet and the remaining students scored from 103 to 130 on the California Test of Mental Maturity.

The article presents two case studies involving two high school nonreaders in the U.S. According to the authors, the test results are significant in demonstrating the rapid, steady progress of boys whose reading retardation was acute and of long standing. When the two boys were referred to the reading clinic they had little sight vocabulary and no skill in attacking new words. However in a short period of time, they made gains that enabled them to read fifth and sixth grade materials. In addition, the two gained self respect, self-confidence and willingness to attack new problems, and general improvement in mental health and degree of security.