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Economic efficiency is affected by several traits, and as the unit of selection is the individual, in artificial selection, to promote the maximization of economic genetic gain, the traits to be improved must be weighted by their respective economic values. In Brazil, breeding goals are defined empirically, and not based on an economic evaluation, therefore, the aim of this study was to estimate economic values for traits of economic importance in dairy farming systems based on the use of purebred and crossbred Guzerat animals. The economic values for 305-days milk yield (MY), fat yield (FY), protein yield (PY), and somatic cell count (SCC) were calculated for different production systems based on the feed management: System 1, based on pasture grazing with Brachiaria brizantha or Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça during rainy season, and corn-silage supplementation during the dry season; System 2, based on pasture grazing with Brachiaria brizantha or Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça during rainy season, and the mixture of sugarcane including urea supplementation during the dry season. Bioeconomic models were applied to estimate economic values, and a sensitivity analysis was performed. Four selection indexes were defined, each one with different goals: milk (I 1 ), milk + protein yield (I 2 ), I 2  + fat yield (I 3 ) and I 3  + somatic cell count (I 4 ). The economic values for MY and PY were positive for both production systems. However, for FY, the values were positive for System 2 but negative for System 1. The economic value for SCC was negative (-7.33 per SCS per lactation). The selection responses for I 1 were higher than those for I 2 , I 3 and I 4 , for both production systems. I 4 presented the highest expected genetic gain for each trait, except for fat yield, whose expected genetic gain was greater with the use of I 2 , in both production systems. The results indicates that the inclusion of milk quality traits in the selection index provides better economic return, and due to the small differences in expected genetic superiority, I 1 is still the most suitable for crossbred Guzerat herds whose main activity is milk production in Brazil., Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval: Not applicable. Consent to participate: Consent was obtained from all authors. Consent for publication: All participants have consented to the submission of the review article to the journal. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2025. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V.)

The objective of this study was to quantify the economic utility in Romosinuano production systems by developing a bioeconomic model assumed cow-calf, cow-calf plus stocker (CCPS), and complete cycle operations. Each system produced males for sale and females for replacement. Input parameters were established from breed data collected by AGROSAVIA. Revenues were estimated using the official cattle price, and production costs were quantified per activity. In the results, for cow-calf operations, the maximum economic utility was 244.12 USD. CCPS, yielded 231.86 USD, and Complete cycle, 268.94 USD. The genetic progress per generation for W240, W480, W24 and CI was + 3.8 kg, + 5 kg, + 5.9 kg, and -1 d, respectively. The price of livestock was the sensitized variable with the greatest impact on maximum economic utility (± 118.64 USD to ± 155.44 USD), followed by mineral supplementation (16.31 USD to ± 37.34 USD). The sensitized variables with the lowest impact were food (± 1.62 USD to ± 1.8 USD) and health plan supplies (± 6.03 USD to ± 9.13 USD). It is concluded that economic utility defined as a composite trait influenced by the characteristics that shape it favors genetic progress and the identification of animals with optimal performance in different bovine production systems., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Iranian buffalo plays a critical role in supplying a portion of the income and the necessities of the rural population. The first step to design a breeding program is difinition of breeding goal (BG), a linear combination of breeding values for various traits and their economic values (EV). The current study was aimed at determining EVs for important traits of Iranian buffaloes, namely milk yield (MY), milk fat (MF), age at the first calving (AFC), and calving interval (CI), as well as at estimating the genetic response of applying various types of selection indices. Economic and management data of 50 buffalo herds from various main regions of buffalo rearing in Iran were collected. The EVs were estimated using a simple profit function. Five selection indices were constructed by combining information on various traits. The EVs for BG traits of MY, MF, AFC, and CI were 0.18, 4.66, - 0.36, and - 1.87 US$, respectively. The highest predicted genetic gain in BG was 16.95 and came from applying the selection index that included all traits. The smallest genetic gain (4.93) was predicted for the index with only AFC included. Predicted genetic gain from an index that included production traits and AFC as a reproduction trait (16.9) was higher than that from the index with only production traits (16.15). Results showed that inclusion of reproductive traits in the selection index had a positive effect on genetic gain for breeding goal.

We hypothesised that use of reproductive technologies (RTs) would result in increases in economic and genetic gains of a dairy cattle breeding programme. A deterministic approach was used to compare RTs that can be utilised to increase dairy cattle productivity and profitability in Kenya. These were artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer (ET) using old (ET OB ) and young (ET YB ) bulls and in vitro fertilisation (IVF). Natural mating (NA m ) was assumed to be the standard reproduction practice in Kenya against which the genetic and economic efficiencies of the RTs were compared. A three tiers open nucleus system was assumed to describe the dairy cattle breeding programme in Kenya. It was open to use of imported semen in the nucleus. The nucleus was assumed to be closed to upward movement of live animals. This is the common practice in Kenya where large farms act as the nucleus from which the multipliers (medium-sized farms) buy replacement stock and subsequently sell replacement animals to the commercial sector (smallholder farms). The increase in monetary gain ranged between 11% when AI was used and 184% when utilising either juvenile ET or IVF. The ET YB and IVF resulted in similar economic and genetic responses for all comparison criteria. The generation interval reduced by between 0.8% in AI and 47% in ET YB and IVF technologies. The respective milk yield (MY) and daily weight gain (dWG) responses were between 25 to 150% and 0 to 110% for the AI and ET YB and IVF.

A sound breeding objective is the basis for genetic improvement in overall economic merit of farm animals. Begait goat is one of the identified breeds in Ethiopia, which is a multipurpose breed as it serves as source of cash income and source of food (meat and milk). Despite its importance, no formal breeding objectives exist for Begait goat. The objective of the present study was to identify breeding objectives for the breed through two approaches: using own-flock ranking experiment and developing deterministic bio-economic models as a preliminary step towards designing sustainable breeding programs for the breed. In the own-flock ranking experiment, a total of 45 households were visited at their homesteads and were asked to select, with reasons, the first best, second best, third best, and the most inferior does from their own flock. Age, previous reproduction, and production information of the identified animals were inquired; live body weight and some linear body measurements were taken. The bio-economic model included performance traits (weights, daily weight gain, kidding interval, litter size, milk yield, kid mortality, pregnancy, and replacement rates) and economic (revenue and costs) parameters. It was observed that there was close agreement between the farmers' ranking and bio-economic model results. In general, the results of the present study indicated that Begait goat owners could improve performance of their goats and profitability of their farms by selecting for 6-month weight, litter size, pre-weaning kid survival rate, and milk yield.

The traditional livestock sector in Somalia is based on nomadic pastoralism where sheep, goats and camels are herded in large numbers. Data from 1609 females (27 % lactating) and 550 males (26 % exported) belonging to 40 pastoralists were analysed in this study. The expected amount of revenue the herders could lose per year in the studied area was estimated at US$404,630 being made up of US$314,630 from decreased milk yield and US$90,000 from reduced market value of exported animals. However, all the camels in Somaliland are at risk of acquiring surra infection, and therefore extrapolating the current findings to the total population could potentially lose US$223,164,000. This highlights the loss in the magnitude of US$164,253,600 from decreased milk yield and US$58,910,400 from body condition loss. Overall, the benefit in controlling Trypanosoma evansi infection in the study area was US$398,880 (n = 2159). On average, US$720 was saved per head per year from improved milk production in treated animals and US$615 from the increased value of exported camels. It is concluded that all three-treatment options evaluated were economically beneficial strategies; however, the biannual treatment of seropositive camels in the herds was the best financial option.

This study evaluated pig production practices by smallholder farmers in two distinct production systems geared towards addressing their constraints and prospects for improvement. The production systems evaluated were semi-intensive and extensive and differed in remoteness, market access, resource availability and pig production intensity. Data were collected using structured questionnaires where a total of 102 pig farmers were interviewed. Qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed to define the socioeconomic characteristics of the production systems, understanding the different roles that pigs play, marketing systems and constraints to production. In both systems, regular cash income and insurance against emergencies were ranked as the main reasons for rearing pigs. Marketing of pigs was mainly driven by the type of production operation. Finances, feeds and housing were identified as the major constraints to production. The study provides important parameters and identifies constraints important for consideration in design of sustainable production improvement strategies. Feeding challenges can be improved through understanding the composition and proper utilization of local feed resources. Provision of adequate housing would improve the stocking rates and control mating.

This study estimated economic values for production traits (dressing percentage (DP), %; live weight for growers (LWg), kg; live weight for sows (LWs), kg) and functional traits (feed intake for growers (FEEDg), feed intake for sow (FEEDs), preweaning survival rate (PrSR), %; postweaning survival (PoSR), %; sow survival rate (SoSR), %, total number of piglets born (TNB) and farrowing interval (FI), days) under different smallholder pig production systems in Kenya. Economic values were estimated considering two production circumstances: fixed-herd and fixed-feed. Under the fixed-herd scenario, economic values were estimated assuming a situation where the herd cannot be increased due to other constraints apart from feed resources. The fixed-feed input scenario assumed that the herd size is restricted by limitation of feed resources available. In addition to the tradition profit model, a risk-rated bio-economic model was used to derive risk-rated economic values. This model accounted for imperfect knowledge concerning risk attitude of farmers and variance of input and output prices. Positive economic values obtained for traits DP, LWg, LWs, PoSR, PrSR, SoSR and TNB indicate that targeting them in improvement would positively impact profitability in pig breeding programmes. Under the fixed-feed basis, the risk-rated economic values for DP, LWg, LWs and SoSR were similar to those obtained under the fixed-herd situation. Accounting for risks in the EVs did not yield errors greater than ±50 % in all the production systems and basis of evaluation meaning there would be relatively little effect on the real genetic gain of a selection index. Therefore, both traditional and risk-rated models can be satisfactorily used to predict profitability in pig breeding programmes.

This paper describes the traditional breeding objectives and practices of West African Dwarf goat, Djallonke sheep, and N'dama cattle keepers in The Gambia and discusses the implications of these on the design of breeding-related interventions to improve livestock productivity. Data were collected via surveys implemented within three study sites in The Gambia, where traditional mixed crop-livestock smallholder farming predominates. The surveys comprised a participatory rural appraisal conducted in nine communities and a household questionnaire targeting 238 households. Livestock-keeping households were classified as 'poorer' or 'wealthier' based on the number of cattle owned. The most important objectives for keeping all species of livestock for the poorer groups (0 to 10 cattle) was 'savings and insurance', followed by 'income' and 'ceremonial/dowry' for the small ruminants and 'manure' and 'draught' for both cows and bulls. In contrast, for the wealthier group (more than 10 cattle), savings and insurance was the fourth to seventh ranked production objective (depending on species), with the most important production objectives being ceremonial/dowry for goats, income for sheep and manure for cows and bulls. An analysis of breeding practices indicated that breeding animals are selected on criteria which partially align to the breeding objectives, animals are rarely purchased for the purpose of breed improvement, knowledge of the cause and consequence of inbreeding is low and breeding decision makers may not necessarily be the livestock owner, particularly if the livestock owner is a women. Given this, it is suggested that capacity building on breeding-related issues, particularly in relation to the selection of breeding animals and specifically targeted at the different socioeconomic groups of livestock keepers, may be an appropriate, effective and relatively low-cost breeding intervention.

A bio-economic model was developed to evaluate the utilisation of indigenous chickens (IC) under different production systems accounting for the risk attitude of the farmers. The model classified the production systems into three categories based on the level of management: free-range system (FRS), where chickens were left to scavenge for feed resources with no supplementation and healthcare; intensive system (IS), where the chickens were permanently confined and supplied with rationed feed and healthcare; and semi-intensive system (SIS), a hybrid of FRS and IS, where the chickens were partially confined, supplemented with rationed feeds, provided with healthcare and allowed to scavenge within the homestead or in runs. The model allows prediction of the live weights and feed intake at different stages in the life cycle of the IC and can compute the profitability of each production system using both traditional and risk-rated profit models. The input parameters used in the model represent a typical IC production system in developing countries but are flexible and therefore can be modified to suit specific situations and simulate profitability and costs of other poultry species production systems. The model has the capability to derive the economic values as changes in the genetic merit of the biological parameter results in marginal changes in profitability and costs of the production systems. The results suggested that utilisation of IC in their current genetic merit and production environment is more profitable under FRS and SIS but not economically viable under IS.

The economic values for productive (egg number, average daily gain, live weight, and mature weight) and functional (fertility, hatchability, broodiness, survival rate, feed intake, and egg weight) traits were derived for three production systems utilizing indigenous chicken in Kenya. The production systems considered were free-range, semi-intensive, and intensive system and were evaluated based on fixed flock size and fixed feed resource production circumstances. A bio-economic model that combined potential performances, feeding strategies, optimum culling strategies, farmer's preferences and accounted for imperfect knowledge concerning risk attitude of farmers and economic dynamics was employed to derive risk-rated economic values. The economic values for all the traits were highest in free-range system under the two production circumstances and decreased with level of intensification. The economic values for egg number, average daily gain, live weight, fertility, hatchability, and survival rate were positive while those for mature weight, broodiness, egg weight, and feed intake were negative. Generally, the economic values estimated under fixed feed resource production circumstances were higher than those derived under fixed flock size. The difference between economic values estimated using simple (traditional) and risk-rated profit model functions ranged from -47.26% to +67.11% indicating that inclusion of risks in estimation of economic values is important. The results of this study suggest that improvement targeting egg number, average daily gain, live weight, fertility, hatchability, and survival rate would have a positive impact on profitability of indigenous chicken production in Kenya.

Biofortification for pro-vitamin A content (pVAC) of modern maize inbreds and hybrids is a feasible way to deal with vitamin A deficiency in rural areas in developing countries. The objective of this study was to evaluate the probability of success of breeding strategies when transferring the high pVAC present in donors to elite modern-adapted lines. For this purpose, a genetic model was built based on previous genetic studies, and different selection schemes including phenotypic selection (PS) and marker-assisted selection (MAS) were simulated and compared. MAS for simultaneously selecting all pVAC genes and a combined scheme for selecting two major pVAC genes by MAS followed by ultra performance liquid chromatography screening for the remaining genetic variation on pVAC were identified as being most effective and cost-efficient. The two schemes have 83.7 and 84.8% probabilities of achieving a predefined breeding target on pVAC and adaptation in one breeding cycle under the current breeding scale. When the breeding scale is increased by making 50% more crosses, the probability values could reach 94.8 and 95.1% for the two schemes. Under fixed resources, larger early generation populations with fewer crosses had similar breeding efficiency to smaller early generation populations with more crosses. Breeding on a larger scale was more efficient both genetically and economically. The approach presented in this study could be used as a general way in quantifying probability of success and comparing different breeding schemes in other breeding programs.

Scavenging chicken production in Africa is important for the livelihood of the poor. In most countries, these low inputs, low output systems employ local breeds making use of the feeding resources available in the household. However, their replacement with introduced exotic breeds with higher productivities represents a risk for their conservation. Here, we present a simulation model to evaluate the impact of community-based interventions aiming to improve the profitability of local chicken breeds and promote their use and conservation. The results indicate that under the current conditions, farmers producing exotic chicken are able to sell more animals in a one year period; however the market price of local chicken makes their production more profitable. Vaccination campaigns significantly reduce the mortality rate of both breeds, having a positive effect on producers' income but its impact on animal off-take is larger for exotic breeds, and the availability of feeding resources is the limiting factor as the flock size increases. The results of the intervention are positive in terms of increasing farmers' income but do not clearly contribute to the conservation of indigenous breeds since after the vaccination campaign, the gap between the profitability of indigenous and exotic breeds is reduced. The simulation model indicates that under the current conditions, the conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Benin is maintained by the existence of distinct niche markets with consumers able to pay higher prices for indigenous chicken. Policies for the conservation of chicken genetic resources in Benin are discussed.

Cost-benefit analysis using net present value (NPV) as the economic evaluation criterion was used to investigate the economic merits of four breeding strategies used for genetic improvement of dairy cattle in Kenya. The breeding strategies were evaluated over a 25-year period. The costs involved in setting up and running each strategy were obtained from large-scale dairy cattle farms, and government and private institutions involved in genetic improvement of dairy cattle. Only benefits from genetic improvement were considered. The impact on NPV due to changes in genetic and economic parameters was investigated. The ranking of the breeding strategies greatly differed with genetic ranking. Among the local selection programs, a strategy utilizing young bulls, sons of local bulls, was more profitable than one utilizing old progeny tested bulls. Continuous semen importation was not an economically viable alternative. The strategy utilizing young bulls progeny of imported bulls (PIB) was only viable if imports were from countries which are >2.00 SD in genetic merit above the local dairy cattle population. The ranking of strategies was not sensitive to changes in genetic parameters but to economic parameters. The use of local semen from young bulls progeny of local proven bulls is recommended. Alternatively, PIB can be utilized but the semen will have to be imported from countries which are >2.00 SD above the local dairy cattle population or the cost of imported semen should be < or = US$40 per straw.

The objective of this study was to determine if the technique of embryo transfer in cattle can be commercially feasible in a region situated in the humid tropics of Mexico. Twenty-six Bos taurus and twenty-six Bos indicus cows were estrous synchronized and superovulated to obtain a total of 80 embryos of both sub-species. Embryos were classified using stereoscopic microscopy based on established criteria. Nine dual-purpose farms situated in the tropics of Mexico were chosen to provide ten recipient cows each to transfer one embryo per cow. The females were transferred using a fixed-time protocol after verifying the presence of a corpus luteum on the seventh day after the end of hormonal treatment. Pregnancy diagnosis was carried out 28 days after embryo transfer by ultrasonography. Estimation of the cost was determined by calculating the expenses for preparation of the donor and embryo recovery, which were US $633 and US $589 for B. taurus and B. indicus, respectively. The cost of each embryo was determined considering the number of transferable embryos recovered, which was 3.8 on mean. The cost of each conception was calculated taking into account the percentage of pregnant animals (27% on mean), and the cost for preparing donor and recipient cows, for transferring embryo. The overall cost per gestation was US $1,447. Considering a 50:50 ratio of male to female born, the cost for a replacement heifer calf was US $2,894, which surpassed by far the commercial cost of a crossbred ready-to-bred heifer normally used as replacement (approximately US $900).

The objective of this study is to describe the present organisational structure of Boran cattle breeding and develop a model breeding programme using a deterministic approach under the current structure of the Boran Cattle Breeders Society. A breeding unit of 13,000 cows supplying bulls to a commercial population of 39,000 cows was assumed. Selection criteria used were growth and reproduction traits while breeding objective traits targeted were growth, carcass, reproduction, survival, milk yield and feed intake traits. Higher selection intensity was possible for breeding sires resulting in higher genetic gains compared to dams even though selection accuracies were generally low. Annual genetic gains were positive except for dressing percentage, cow survival rate, and age at first calving. However, a reduction of age at first calving by 9.5 days obtained a return of Ksh 49.76. The overall monetary genetic gain obtained was Ksh 84.89 with a profit per cow per year of Ksh 377.98. The basic breeding programme could be expanded to accommodate a larger population of Boran cattle. The implications of the results are also discussed.

The use of imported semen within the Holstein-Friesian cattle population in Kenya has contributed to increased milk production per cow, however, information on how this has impacted on functional traits, particularly early life survival and reproductive performance is scarce. This study evaluated age at first calving (AFC), survival to age at first calving, and survival to four years of age using survival analyses techniques, in Holstein-Friesian cattle on four dairy farms in Kenya. The heritability estimate obtained for AFC was 0.15 +/- 0.06 for an average AFC of 1058 days. Animals sired by New Zealand and Australian born bulls had the earliest average AFC (907 days). On average, 25% of all the heifers born were culled prior to attaining a first calving, while 34% were culled prior to four years of age. Though the highest proportion of losses was due to unspecified reasons, the relative risk of being culled was highest when an animal had a specific disease, and the first 60 days of life were the most critical for survival. Daughters of sires from South-Africa and Israel tended to have better survival rates than those sired by bulls originating from other regions. Unfavourable selection towards animals sired by Kenyan born bulls was evident. The economic implications of the high rate of early mortality need to be evaluated in order to assist livestock producers make informed decisions on choice of sires for breeding.

A survey was performed to characterize the dairy production, educational experiences, decision making practices, and income and expenses of dairy farms and to determine any differences of these practices among two dairy farm populations. Farm groups were identified as farms from the Muaklek dairy cooperative (Muaklek farms) and farms from other dairy cooperatives (Non-Muaklek farms). In April, 2006 questionnaires were distributed to 500 dairy farms located in Lopburi, Nakhon Ratchisima, and Saraburi provinces. A total of 85 farms completed and returned questionnaires. Means and frequencies were calculated for questions across categories and Chi-square tests were performed to determine differences among Muaklek and Non-Muaklek farms. Results showed that most farms from both groups had a primary or high school educational level, used a combination confinement and pasture production system, gave a mineral supplement, raised their own replacement females, milked approximately 16 cows/day, used crossbred Holstein cows (75% Holstein or more), and mated purebred Holstein sires to their cows. More Non-Muaklek farms (P < 0.05; 80%) used a combination of genetic and phenotypic information when selecting sires than Muaklek farms (54%). Monthly profit per lactating cow, were 1,641 and 1,029 baht for Muaklek and Non-Muaklek farms, respectively. Overall, information from the study should be useful for dairy cooperatives and other dairy organizations when training farmers in the future and furthering dairy production research in Thailand.

Livestock diversity contributes in many ways to human survival and well-being, while its loss reduces options for attaining sustainable agriculture and universal food security. The current rapid rate of loss of this diversity is the result of a number of underlying factors. While in some cases changes in production systems and consumer preferences reflect the natural evolution of developing economies and markets, in other cases production systems, breed choice and consumer preferences have been distorted by local, national and international policy. In the context of a widespread threat to local pig breeds in Vietnam, this paper identifies and quantifies the level of agricultural subsidies that are currently contributing to this process of breed substitution. Producer subsidies-which tend to improve the competitiveness of imported breeds and their crosses over local breeds--are shown to be considerable, and mitigating measures are now urgently needed to avoid an irreversible loss of livestock diversity.

In the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants Act of 1991, mutation is mentioned as one of the mechanisms to obtain an 'essentially derived' variety (EDV). For the implementation of the EDV concept in the case of mutation, it is important that the level of genetic relatedness between an initial variety and derived mutant varieties can clearly be distinguished from the level of relatedness between arbitrary pairs of varieties without a derivation relation. Conditions to be fulfilled for such a distinction include enough genetic differentiation in the germplasm pool of interest, sufficiently low levels of genomic sampling error and technical laboratory error and high reproducibility within and between laboratories. In rose, mutants or 'sports' are frequently observed during multiplication, making it a suitable crop for studying the possibilities for introduction of the EDV concept in ornamentals. We studied genetic similarities among 83 rose varieties, including 13 mutant groups. Twelve AFLP primer combinations generated 284 polymorphic markers and 114 monomorphic (fixed) bands. Pair-wise Jaccard similarities between original varieties and derived mutants were close to 1.0 (>0.96), whereas all similarities between original varieties were below 0.80, with 75% of the non-mutant similarities even being below 0.50. Values less than 1.0 for similarity among original varieties and their mutants were to a major extent due to scoring errors. Error rates in automated scoring proved to be lower than those in manually scored and transferred data. Experimental errors, even between laboratories, turned out to be very small. On the basis of a consistent and large difference between similarities, relations between an original variety and its mutants can easily be identified and distinguished from relations between original varieties. These results open the way for implementing the essential derivation concept in rose.

Productivity data were gathered from Mashona cows (n = 187) in 28 traditionally managed herds in two areas, separated by a corridor 20-30 km wide of almost uninhabited bush in NE Zimbabwe. Cattle are kept primarily to provide oxen for work. Cows in the southern area, which had been more affected by drought in 1991-92, were younger (7.2 vs. 9.1 years) and had a longer median calving interval (548 vs. 406 days). Metrical data (n = 105 cows) showed these cattle to be larger-bodied than those in the northern area (heart girth 146 vs. 144 cm). Market prices, estimated by respondents, were higher for oxen and herds were smaller in the south, and calf survival was believed by owners to be more influenced by season of birth in this area. Data were obtained on 531 calves. Before the age of 12 months 6.2% died, a low proportion compared with other studies. Most were retained in herds but 11.5% were slaughtered, sold or given away. All owners practised castration, selecting fast growing, strong bull calves for breeding.