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Minimal invasive surgery is popular and an adequate tool to solve many patient problems. A minimal invasive technique used in patients suffering from chronic lateral ankle instability is capsular shrinkage. An arthroscopic technique that uses radiofrequent energy to shrink the joint capsule and ligamentous tissue with the objective to resolve ankle instability.

The glenohumeral joint facilitates the large range of upper limb motion that is essential for undertaking most activities of daily living. The shallow concavity of the bony glenoid and fibrocartilaginous labrum, together with the humeral head, comprises an inherently unstable joint that is dependent on the integrity and morphology of the articular surfaces, as well as the simultaneous activity of the rotator cuff for glenohumeral joint compression and stability. The scapulothoracic joint provides an additional stabilization by increasing upper limb range of motion and providing a moving “seat” for the humeral head, while the bony glenoid concavity, joint capsule and ligaments generate passive support to the glenohumeral joint, particularly in the mid-range and end range of joint motion. Disease or trauma to any of these bony or soft-tissue stabilizers may result in glenohumeral instability.

The highly coordinated musculoskeletal sequence in overhead and throwing sports results in multidirectional and supraphysiological stress to the athlete’s shoulder. Therefore, these sports show a high incidence of long-term overload damage. Decentralization of the humeral head leads to a posterosuperior impingement (PSI) and thus to rotator cuff tears as well as lesions of the biceps anchor complex or pulley system. Consideration of joint capsule, scapula, joint stability, rotator cuff muscles and biceps tendon complex is essential for the process of decision-making. Conservative therapy is based on a graded rehabilitation program including training of the complete kinetic chain, joint mobility, strength, endurance and neuromuscular control, especially of the periscapular muscles. Surgical treatment may include SLAP repair, subpectoral biceps tenodesis, reconstruction of rotator cuff tears or posterior capsular release.

Displaced fractures of the radial head may be effectively treated arthroscopically. Arthroscopic treatment offers the advantage of improved visualization of the joint and associated injuries while minimizing soft tissue aggression and preservation of the lateral ligamentous complex and joint capsule. Postoperative mobilization should be guided by the associated injuries, but in the absence of these, immediate range of motion exercises can be readily started after the operation, and return to sports activities can be expected as soon as 6 weeks postoperatively.

Hoffa's (infrapatellar) fat pad (HFP) is one of the knee fat pads interposed between the joint capsule and the synovium. Located posterior to patellar tendon and anterior to the capsule, the HFP is richly innervated and, therefore, one of the sources of anterior knee pain. Repetitive local microtraumas, impingement, and surgery causing local bleeding and inflammation are the most frequent causes of HFP pain and can lead to a variety of arthrofibrotic lesions. In addition, the HFP may be secondarily involved to menisci and ligaments disorders, injuries of the patellar tendon and synovial disorders. Patients with oedema or abnormalities of the HFP on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are often symptomatic; however, these changes can also be seen in asymptomatic patients. Radiologists should be cautious in emphasising abnormalities of HFP since they do not always cause pain and/or difficulty in walking and, therefore, do not require therapy. Teaching Points • Hoffa's fat pad (HFP) is richly innervated and, therefore, a source of anterior knee pain. • HFP disorders are related to traumas, involvement from adjacent disorders and masses. • Patients with abnormalities of the HFP on MRI are often but not always symptomatic. • Radiologists should be cautious in emphasising abnormalities of HFP.

To prevent abnormal translation of the humeral head on the glenoid, the shoulder is stabilised by both static and dynamic mechanisms. The static mechanisms include the bony configurations of the glenoid and humerus, the glenoid labrum, the joint capsule and the glenohumeral ligaments. Although the avulsion of the capsulolabral complex (Bankart lesion) accounts for more than 80% of instability cases, the humeral avulsion of the glenohumeral ligaments (HAGL) has only been reported in 1–9% of patients but may be even higher when looking at specific subgroups. The mechanism of injury is commonly traumatic but with accurate diagnosis and early surgical repair predictable good outcomes can be obtained.

Arthroscopy of the elbow was described for the first time by Burman in 1931 [1], but he defined in the first time this articulation as not suitable for the arthroscopy because of limited joint space. After Watanabe developed smaller arthroscopes in 1971, Ito [2, 3] and Maeda [4] were describing some new accesses. Andrew and Carson [5] in 1985 and Johnson [6] in 1986 were the first to systematically perform arthroscopy of the elbow defining indications and surgical technique. Subsequently, other authors have pointed out the risks of complications with an incidence occurring between 10 % and 20 % of the cases, considerably higher than that found in other joints [7, 8].

In contrast to the small size and area of the acromioclavicular (AC) joint, it nevertheless plays a major role in the function of the upper extremity and the stability of the shoulder girdle. In addition to the AC joint capsule and its ligaments, of which its superior and posterior parts are primarily allocated a horizontal-stabilizing function, the coracoclavicular (CC) ligaments that provide vertical and horizontal stability have been described as one of the most relevant factors in AC joint function and stability [1–3]. Musculotendinous structures, often referred to as the deltotrapezoidal fascia, are named as dynamic stabilizers; however, neither their structure nor their influence on AC joint stability is known thoroughly.

The zygapophysial joints, together with the intervertebral disc, form a functional spine unit. The importance of the zygapophysial joints as a pain generator is often underestimated because the prevalence of zygapophysial joint pain (10–80 %) is difficult to specify. The prevalence increases with age, and it often comes along with other pain sources. Zygapophysial joints are typical synovial joints with a dual nerve supply from the medial branches of the dorsal rami. The joint capsule and the surrounding structures are richly innervated. The stretching of the capsule and loads being transmitted through the joint can cause pain. Degenerative changes are commonly found. Zygapophysial joints are often affected by osteoarthritis and inflammatory processes. Often additional factors including synovial cysts, spondylolisthesis, spinal canal stenosis, and injuries are present. Zygapophysial joint pain is a somatic referred pain. Morning stiffness and pain when moving from a sitting to a standing position are typical. No historic or physical examination variables exist to identify zygapophysial joint pain. Also, radiologic findings do not have a diagnostic value for zygapophysial joint pain. The most accepted method for diagnosing zygapophysial joint pain is controlled medial branch block. It is the most validated of all spinal interventions, although false-positive and false-negative results exist and the degree of pain relief after medial branch blocks remains contentious. The only truly validated treatment is radiofrequency neurotomy. The available techniques vindicate the use of medial branch neurotomy provided that the correct technique is used and patients are selected rigorously using controlled blocks.

The femoral neck, which is situated between the femoral head and the trochanters of the thigh, is divided into three sections. The medial region is defined as the area between the femoral head and the field of maximal tapering. Adjacent is situated the lateral region of the femoral neck. The intersection to the trochanters is called the basocervical region, which is outside of the hip joint capsule. Therefore, a basocervical hip fracture is classified as a trochanteric fracture. Medial femoral neck fractures are intracapsular fractures, whereas lateral fractures occur around the insertion of the hip joint capsule. Furthermore, subcapital fractures run next to the border of the femoral head and are a subgroup of the medial femoral neck fractures [1, 2]

Recurrence of instability after isolated Bankart repairs is common in patients with co-existing glenoid and humeral head bone loss. Remplissage is an arthroscopic procedure used to fill the Hill-Sachs defect and prevent recurrence. This arthroscopic procedure is performed in conjunction with a Bankart repair, filling the humeral head defect with the infraspinatus tendon and the posterior joint capsule. Short-term clinical studies demonstrate a technique with predictable healing, good quality of life outcome scores, an average recurrence rate of 6.6 %, and with most patients returning to pre-injury levels. Biomechanical studies have demonstrated a loss of internal-external rotation after this procedure compared to Bankart repair alone. We suggest remplissage as a procedure for patients with engaging Hill-Sachs defects with minimal glenoid-sided bone loss. Longer-term prospective and comparative studies are still needed to fully evaluate remplissage outcomes.

Its mean length is 38 mm and mean width is 13 mm. It becomes thinner as it approaches the tibia, and it is partially embedded within the joint capsule. Its tibial attachment site is located 1 cm below the articular surface.