Search

Acute viral hepatitis (AVH) is a systemic infection, caused by a group of viruses, which have special affliction and primary site of replication in the liver [1]. As of today, five unelated hepatotropic pathogens have been identified to cause AVH. These include the hepatitis A virus (HAV), the hepatitis B virus (HBV), the hepatitis C virus (HCV), the hepatitis D virus (HDV), and the hepatitis E virus (HEV). However, varying proportion of AVH cases fall in to the non-A-E group and are in search of putative agent/s. This includes 2–30% cases of sporadic AVH [2], 30–55% cases of acute liver failure [3], and most cases of giant-cell hepatitis (postviral hepatitis) aplastic anemia [4]. Over the years, several viruses have been identified and all are in search of disease. Transfusion-transmitted agents, namely human pegivirus (HPgV) (formerly known as GBV-C/HGV), TT virus, and other TTV-related viruses (SANYAN, YONBON, SEN viruses, and TTV-like Mini virus), have been identified but do not cause AVH [5]. There have been new kids on the block of whom we must learn more about in future. Two more novel agents in the pegivirus genera of the family Flaviviridae have been identified and named as human hepegivirus 1 (HHpgV-1) [6] and human pegivirus 2 (HPgV-2) [7]. A number of systemic viral infections that may involve liver and cause hepatitis include Epstein-Barr virus infection, cytomegalovirus infection, herpes simplex virus infection, Varicella-Zoster virus infection, and severe acute respiratory syndrome [8].

Hepatitis A is an infectious disease of the liver caused by hepatitis A virus. Hepatitis A has a global distribution with endemicity inversely proportional to higher socioeconomic conditions and standards of sanitation and hygiene. Hepatitis A virus infection is predominantly spread directly from one person to another through orofecal transmission and through contaminated food and water. The clinical outcome is strongly correlated with age, being mostly subclinical in young children and symptomatic in older children and adults. Hepatitis A vaccine is safe, highly immunogenic and protective against clinical hepatitis A.

This chapter deals with the biochemical pharmacology depicted by the plant Artemisia amygdalina. The important biological activities that have been reported till date include those of free radical scavenging potential of the in vitro raised and greenhouse acclimatized plants, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activity of the plant and the anti-diabetic and anti-hyperlipidemic effect of A. amygdalina. The methanolic extract of the in vitro grown and greenhouse acclimatized plants revealed the highest inhibitory activity, 92.11 and 91.2 % (IC50 = 26.06 µg mL−1), respectively, against DPPH radical. Carrageenan paw edema model has been employed to study the potential of the plant extracts in inflammation in wistar rats. SRBC-specific haemagglutination-titer and DTH assays have been carried out in Balb/C mice for observing the effect of extracts on immune system. The methanolic fraction has been observed to have the maximum effect on the inhibition of paw edema formation with the inhibitory potential of 42.26 %, while in the immunomodulation studies the plant extracts have been found to have the immunosuppressant activity with methanolic fraction again showing the maximum potential for the suppression of both humoral (55.89 and 47.91 %) and cell-mediated immunity (62.27 and 57.21 %). Petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, methanol, and hydroethanolic extracts of A. amygdalina have been tested for their anti-diabetic potentials in diabetic rats. The hydroethanolic and methanolic extracts each at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg b.w. have significantly reduced glucose levels in diabetic rats. The other biochemical parameters like cholesterol, triglycerides, low density lipoproteins (LDL), serum creatinine, serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SGPT), serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT), and alkaline phosphatise (ALP), have been found to be reduced by the hydroethanolic and methanolic extracts. The extracts have also shown reduction in the feed and water consumption of diabetic rats when compared with the diabetic control.

This chapter deals with the bioactivity guided isolation of Artemisia amygdalina Decne. The hexane extracts of both shoot and root parts of Artemisia amygdalina Decne have displayed potent cytotoxic effects. Phytochemical analysis of these active extracts has led to the isolation of six cytotoxic constituents, viz., 7,22-ergostadien-3β-ol (1), ludartin (2), 5-hydroxy-6,7,3′,4′-tetramethoxyflavone (3) (from shoots) and trans-matricaria ester (4), diacetylenic spiroenol ether (5) and cis-matricaria ester (6) (from root) from this plant. The constituents have been identified using spectral and analytical techniques in the light of literature. Sulphorhodamine B cytotoxicity screening of the isolated constituents has been carried out against four human cancer cell lines including lung (A-549), leukemia (THP-1), prostate (PC-3), and colon (HCT-116) cell lines. Ludartin (2) exhibited the highest cytotoxicity with IC50 values of 7.4, 3.1, 7.5 and 6.9 µM against lung (A-549), leukemia (THP-1), prostate (PC-3), and colon (HCT-116) cancer cell lines, respectively. To test against in vitro skin cancer models [human dermal fibroblasts (CRL-1635)], all the isolates have been further subjected to 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-yl)-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) cytotoxicity screening. Ludartin being highly cytotoxic has been evaluated against mouse melanoma (B16F10) and human epidermoid carcinoma (A-431) cells by MTT assay displaying IC50 values of 6.6 µM and 19.0 µM respectively. Finally a simple and reliable HPLC method has been developed (RP-HPLC-DAD) and validated for the simultaneous quantification of these cytotoxic constituents in A. amygdalina Decne. Excellent specificity and high linearity for all the standard calibration curves, having regression coefficients of the respective linear equations in the range of 0.9962 − 0.9999, has been observed. Relative recovery rates varied between 98.37 ± 0.90 and 105.15 ± 1.74 with relative standard deviation less than 4 %. Based on these results, the developed method features good quantification parameters, accuracy, and precision and can serve as effective quality control method for standardization of A. amygdalina Decne.

This chapter deals with the qualitative analysis of wild and tissue culture raised regenerants of Artemisia amygdalina, for the amount of bioactive principles particularly the antimalarial compound, artemisinin. Phytochemical screening of extracts revealed the presence of terpenes, alkaloids, phenolics, tannins (polyphenolics), cardiac glycosides, and steroids in wild (aerial, inflorescence) and tissue culture regenerants (in vitro grown plant, callus,and greenhouse acclimatized plants). Further, HPLC of A. amygdalina extracts has revealed the presence of artemisinin in petroleum ether extracts of wild aerial part, tissue culture raised plant, and greenhouse acclimatized plants. Acetonitrile and water in 70:30 ratios at a flow rate of 1 ml/min have been optimized as mobile phase. It has been observed that wild inflorescences and callus do not produce artemisinin.