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To compensate for mineral deficiencies in food sources, numerous ungulate species use various methods, such as salt licking, soil ingestion, and gnawing on antlers or bones. While osteophagia, the act of gnawing on antlers or bones, is well-documented in cervid species, it has only been observed in sika deer (Cervus nippon) on Mageshima Island in southern Japan despite their widespread distribution. This study aimed to provide an initial account of the observations of osteophagia in sika deer from central Japan. One of the 15 camera traps deployed in the Hakone Nature Forest of Tamagawa University for wildlife monitoring serendipitously captured multiple instances of adult female sika deer gnawing on a four-tined antler on July 9th and 16th in 2018. These occurrences coincided with the fawning season of the species during which mineral deficiencies in the diet are prevalent, suggesting that osteophagia serves as a response to nutrient deficiencies in the diet of sika deer in central Japan. Thus, systematic surveys may yield additional evidence of this behavior in sika deer across diverse geographical areas given the absence of studies on osteophagia in sika deer conducted in other regions. Digital video images related to the article are available at http://www.momo-p.com/showdetail-e.php?movieid=momo240508cn01a. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mast seeding drives large-scale population fluctuations in forest-dwelling animals, including the wild boar Sus scrofa. Many studies of the masting effects on population dynamics of wild boars have been conducted in cool- and warm-temperate forests; however, studies on wild boar populations inhabiting subtropical forests, which have more diverse plant resources than temperate forests, are limited. The mast seeding effects of Castanopsis sieboldii on the reproductive schedule and population fluctuations of wild boars inhabiting the subtropical climate zone of the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) were investigated using 14 years of camera trap data. The reproductive schedule, estimated based on the emergence of piglets, varied in response to masting. The piglet emergence during the January–February period was higher in the years after masting than in the years that followed non-masting events, evidencing that the reproductive season started earlier and lasted longer in the years after masting. The Bayesian state-space model incorporating direct density-dependence and masting effects revealed that the relative population size was negatively affected by the population size of the previous year and positively affected by the previous year’s occurrence of masting. These observations indicate that masting is a critical factor driving population dynamics of wild boars living in subtropical forests and also highlight the importance of mast seeding effects on population fluctuations of wild boars when developing management plans for these animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Azores, complaints about grape loss to birds have become recurrent. Although winegrowers frequently blame the endemic Azores Woodpigeon Columba palumbus azorica, data about the magnitude of grape damage and the species responsible for them are lacking. This study provides detailed information about grape damage caused by vertebrates on Pico Island, home to the main wine-growing area of the region. Vineyards were monitored during the ripening period in 2017 and 2018. Damage was assessed by determining the number of plucked, pecked and bitten grapes for a total of 850 bunches. Camera traps were placed in 113 enclosures providing detection and consumption rates of vertebrate species. GLM analysis was performed to test the effect of grape variety, distance to the woods, year and time before harvest on grape damage and consumption events. Damage was estimated at 10.3% (± 0.9) in 2017 and 8.7% (± 0.9) in 2018 and mostly consisted of plucked grapes. Ten vertebrate species were detected consuming grapes. Overall, 524 consumption events were registered. The Madeira lizard Teira dugesii, the Azores Blackbird Turdus merula azorensis and rodents (rats Rattus sp. and the house mouse Mus musculus) were responsible for most of those events. The Azores Woodpigeon accounted for three consumption events. GLM analysis showed that damage was greater in vines adjacent to woods and lower in traditional white varieties. This study constitutes an important baseline for the implementation of efficient measures to mitigate grape predation and sheds light on the minor role of the Azores Woodpigeon in grape damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tool use by animals, traditionally studied mainly in captive primates due to its relevance to human evolution, has been investigated in both free-ranging and captive mammals. Here, I present a report on tree bark and branch use behaviours by a free-ranging Japanese marten (Martes melampus). The marten put its face in a water-filled container, looking for something, and then it proceeded to make a scooping motion with a bark held in its mouth. Subsequently, it picked up a branch with its mouth and tried to scoop something from the water with it. Upon inspecting the container approximately 2 weeks later, I found a larva belonging to the family Syrphidae. While it is unclear if the marten was trying to catch this larva, its behaviour resembled reach extension behaviour seen in chimpanzees. The use of bark or branches may provide an advantage by allowing access to objects in hard-to-reach positions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetlands are a critical habitat for boreal mammals and birds that rely on them for breeding, foraging, and resting. However, wetlands in boreal regions are under increasing natural and human pressure, leading to a reduction in habitat availability for these species. To inform management and conservation of wildlife, camera traps can help investigate habitat preferences. We aimed to evaluate the effect of habitat features on the occupancy of mammals and birds in boreal wetlands, namely beaver ponds and peatland ponds. We used a multispecies occupancy model to estimate the habitat associations of 11 mammals and 45 avian species detected at 50 ponds during the summers of 2018 and 2019 in Northern Quebec. The patterns of habitat response do not lend support to the hypothesis that beaver ponds host higher levels of occupancy of birds and mammals than peatland ponds. Our results suggest that certain mammals, such as Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and River Otters (Lontra canadensis), and birds including the American Pipit (Anthus rubescens), Common Raven (Corvus corax), Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus), and Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) preferred peatland ponds, whereas the Common Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) preferred beaver ponds. We found a few effects of distance to roads, but no effect of amount of forest cover on species occupancy. The occupancy of 27% of mammals and 24% of birds decreased with increasing latitude. These findings offer valuable insights for the preservation of different wetland types and their associated wildlife communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

White-cheeked macaque Macaca leucogenys is a recently described primate species discovered by camera-trap surveys in the Medog region in 2015. The species was thought to be narrowly distributed in southeastern Tibet. However, knowledge on the distribution and conservation of the species is quite limited. Based on a systematic camera-trapping survey, we report the occurrence of the species in the Gaoligong Mountains, over 350 km southeast of the nearest known population. We recorded 3025 photographs of white-cheeked macaques representing 481 independent records from 59 camera-trap stations with total trapping efforts of 18,437 camera days. Notably, part of the newly discovered locations of the white-cheeked macaque are outside of nature reserves without any formal protection and management. Our survey also confirms the occurrence of ten primate species in the Gaoligong Mountains, accounting for 35.7% of China's primates, including the Skywalker hoolock gibbon Hoolock tianxing and the Myanmar snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus strykeri etc. These findings reveal a new distribution record for the white-cheeked macaque and further highlight the conservation values of Gaoligong Mountains for globally threatened primate species. We also provide a preliminary report on the daily activity patterns of this endangered species, which enriches the bio-ecological data of the poorly studied species. We believe the report has significant implications for understanding the ecology of the species and improving conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Land-use change, including agricultural expansion, is one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss globally. Given the rapid pace of land-use change, data-driven, strategic, and dynamic conservation planning is imperative. Objectives: We present an exemplar application of using existing data to inform conservation planning. Specifically, we developed a systematic approach for identifying areas of conservation concern due to cannabis cultivation in California, USA. Methods: We used three existing datasets: (1) camera trap data from ten projects (n = 1186); (2) the locations of cannabis cultivation sites eradicated by law enforcement (n = 834); and (3) the locations of cultivation licenses (n = 4366). We analyzed this data using multi-species occupancy models to estimate the occupancy and richness of 30 species, and maximum entropy models to estimate the risk of unlicensed and trespass cultivation. We then identified areas of overlap and determined the percent of suitable habitat potentially impacted by cannabis cultivation. Results: Cannabis cultivation was estimated to overlap 39–74% of suitable habitat for special status species. Private land cultivation tended to have a larger influence on generalist species whereas trespass cultivation had the largest potential influence on fisher (Pekania pennanti), a special status species. Conclusions: Our results can be used to prioritize eradication, restoration, and remediation activities; to target mitigation efforts; and to guide the placement of new, licensed cultivation. Our approach demonstrates the utility of aggregating existing biological and socioeconomic data to inform conservation planning and is broadly applicable to other data sources and ecological stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: The Mediterranean basin is characterized by a heterogeneous landscape historically shaped by human activities. Land abandonment and extensive monocultures, however, have led to increasing homogeneity of Mediterranean habitats. Albeit the effects of habitat heterogeneity on wildlife have been widely studied, the available information on how habitat homogenization impacts the organization of mesocarnivore communities is still scant. Objectives: We investigated the relationship of environmental characteristics with occupancy, activity, community organization, and co-occurrence of mesocarnivore species in space and time. We focused on five key species (Vulpes vulpes, Genetta genetta, Meles meles, Herpestes ichneumon, and Martes foina) widely distributed throughout Mediterranean ecosystems. Methods: The study was conducted in north-central Portugal between June 2019 and June 2020. We used 300 camera trap sampling points coupled with occupancy, activity, and co-occurrence analysis to assess how different environmental characteristics influence mesocarnivores community. Results: We found that the occupancy of mesocarnivores is influenced by topography, landscape composition and structure, and human activity. We observed that landscape homogeneity limits the co-occurrence of mesocarnivores. In heterogeneous landscapes we recorded a greater overlap in activity (seven of ten species pairs) and spatial co-occurrence (six of the seven species pairs analyzed) of mesocarnivores species. Conclusions: We demonstrated the importance of landscape characteristics in the composition of the mesocarnivores community. Our findings support the adoption of management measures able to mitigate the impacts of landscape homogenization. Maximizing the heterogeneity is an important step to benefit the mesocarnivore community in altered Iberian landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camera traps have revolutionized how ecologists monitor wildlife, but their full potential is realized only when the hundreds of thousands of collected images can be readily classified with minimal human intervention. Deep learning classification models have allowed extraordinary progress towards this end, but trained models remain rare and are only now emerging for European fauna. We report on the first milestone of the DeepFaune initiative (https://www.deepfaune.cnrs.fr), a large-scale collaboration between more than 50 partners involved in wildlife research, conservation and management in France. We developed a classification model trained to recognize 26 species or higher-level taxa that are common in Europe, with an emphasis on mammals. The classification model achieved 0.97 validation accuracy and often > 0.95 precision and recall for many classes. These performances were generally higher than 0.90 when tested on independent out-of-sample datasets for which we used image redundancy contained in sequences of images. We implemented our model in a software to classify images stored locally on a personal computer, so as to provide a free, user-friendly, and high-performance tool for wildlife practitioners to automatically classify camera trap images. The DeepFaune initiative is an ongoing project, with new partners joining regularly, which allows us to continuously add new species to the classification model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In guilds, such as the large predators, species compete over multiple resources that are both consumable and non-consumable. The niche complementary hypothesis states that competitors can overlap in resource use if there is low overlap for at least one shared resource. In Africa, cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, compete with other large carnivores across space, time and prey and are known to be subordinate; however, rarely has the entire guild been considered when assessing resource partitioning by cheetah. Using camera-trap data from four areas sampled over 4 years, we compared spatial and temporal overlap between cheetah and other large carnivores. Moreover, we estimated short-term avoidance of sites by cheetah after another large carnivore had visited. We show that cheetah align with the niche complementary hypothesis to avoid other large carnivores. Cheetah experienced high overlap with African wild dog, Lycaon pictus, activity patterns but avoided sites that were used frequently by them. The inverse was observed for lion, Panthera leo, and spotted hyena, Crocuta crocuta, with cheetah avoiding them across time but not space. Cheetah experienced moderate overlap with leopard, Panthera pardus, across both space and time, with only possible short-term avoidance occurring. Finally, cheetah exhibited high levels of spatial and temporal overlap with preferred prey species, suggesting a novel demonstration of the trade-off between resource acquisition and predator avoidance. Our results showcase the importance of taking multiple scales and resource axes into consideration when determining species abilities to co-exist and provides tools for managers working in highly managed systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecological studies of common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) in their extant range have been limited by technology and the species' nocturnal habit. However, camera traps now allow the investigation of possum ethology without observer interference. Here, we analysed terrestrial possum activity patterns using a large dataset collected over 3 years from 133 camera traps in mesic eucalypt woodland and open forest in three national parks on the New England Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia. We investigated how weather and moonlight intensity influenced possum activity patterns throughout the night, and across seasons and years, by using the timestamps assigned to each detection by the camera trap. Terrestrial possum activity increased as ambient temperatures decreased in autumn and peaked in winter when females were rearing offspring. Nightly possum detections decreased significantly with rain and increasing mean temperature. Possums were almost exclusively nocturnal, with most terrestrial activity earlier in the evening in winter and later at night in summer. During longer nights, higher temperatures also delayed activity. While nightly detection rates were not affected by lunar phase, possums preferred parts of the night with the highest moonlight intensity, and this effect was stronger on brighter nights. Overall, brushtail possums were most active on the ground when temperatures were mild and moonlight bright, presumably assisting foraging and predator avoidance, and during the breeding season; they avoided rain. These patterns suggest that reproduction, thermoregulation and risk of predation strongly shape the nocturnal activity cycle. Furthermore, our research adds to the evidence that camera traps can help greatly expand our knowledge of the ecology and behaviour of nocturnal mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nurse plants provide benefits during the early life cycle of the protected plant by reducing the intensity of stressful abiotic conditions. However, nurse plants may influence frugivore visitation and consumption, affecting the initial benefits of this interaction and generating different frugivory patterns during the reproductive phase of the protégé. Despite the importance of nurse plants and frugivory in the structure and composition of ecosystems, they have rarely been evaluated together, and frugivory patterns caused by nurse plants at different spatial and temporal scales are mostly unknown. Pilosocereus leucocephalus produces seeds that are endozoochorically dispersed by birds and mammals, can establish in open spaces devoid of arboreal vegetation (OS), and is associated with the nurse tree Lysiloma acapulcensis. However, the influence of L. acapulcensis on the frugivory patterns of P. leucocephalus is unknown. Therefore, during the fruiting season of P. leucocephalus of 2018, we recorded the visitation rates, effective removal, and removal timescales in 26 individuals located in OS and 15 under L. acapulcensis. Our results indicate that L. acapulcensis increased visits by Euphonia hirundinacea and bats but decreased those of Psilorhinus morio and Campylorhynchus rufinucha. Although L. acapulcensis did not generate differences in fruit removal effectiveness, bats showed the highest effectiveness in OS, followed by birds. L. acapulcensis also had an effect on the fruit removal periods of different frugivorous species at different temporal scales. This shows that the nurse tree generated a complex pattern of frugivory in P. leucocephalus, mainly increasing the initial benefits of the nurse-protégé interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest roads are networks for forest management and operations closely associated with mammal habitats. Some mammals often select forest roads for movement and foraging; however, the use during winter with snow cover is unknown. This study clarified forest road use by medium-sized mammals in winter snow environments in a hilly area. We set camera traps on forest roads and interior forest sites during winter in a snowy region of northeastern Japan in 2021 and 2022. We calculated the road-use index of four medium-sized mammals, and analyzed relationships between the occurrence frequency and snow conditions and slope angle in each species. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1758) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides (Gray, 1834)) significantly occurred at the gentle slope sites regardless of year, and these species walked along the forest road. Japanese martens (Martes melampus (Wagner, 1840)) tended to walk along forest roads with a gentle slope only in 2022. Although Japanese hares (Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844) significantly occurred at the gentle slope sites, they showed no tendency to walk along forest roads. No significant differences were detected in sinking depth in the analyses of each species. Our results show that forest roads with a gentle slope, a low movement cost, created by modifying landforms can alter the behavior of some mammals, even in snowy environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coati (Nasua nasua) and the crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) are sympatric procyonids that are relatively abundant and appear to exhibit tolerance towards moderate levels of anthropogenic modification. However, there are differences in their social behavior and activity patterns. Here we evaluated the probability of detection, occupancy, and daily activity patterns of these two neotropical species in different populations of the Atlantic Forest. We used data from 105 camera-trap stations distributed along five areas. We analyzed data from 7541 trap-nights. The average occupancy probability of the crab-eating raccoon (Ψ = 0.38, 0.21–0.59 CI) was lower than that of the coati (Ψ = 0.62, 0.35–0.84 CI) and that pattern was consistent in all five surveyed sites. The occupancy of the coati was negatively affected by human density and distance to water bodies, while the crab-eating raccoon occupancy was positively affected by the percentage of forests. Activity pattern was diurnal for coatis in two of the sampled areas (Rayleigh-Z0.6365, p-value < 0.05) (Rayleigh-Z0.4864, p-value < 0.001), and nocturnal for crab-eating raccoons (Rayleigh-Z0.5753, p-value < 0.05) (Rayleigh-Z0.7286, p-value < 0.05); however, the coati presented cathemeral activity in the area most modified by human activity (Rayleigh-Z0.1538, p-value = 0.472). The coati and the crab-eating raccoon responded differently to different types of human alteration. Our results show that while common, coatis and crab-eating raccoons present distinct levels of sensitivity to different types of anthropogenic changes in the landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Setting large- and medium-sized wild mammal (≥ 2 kg) restoration goals is important due to their role as ecosystem engineers and generalized numeric reductions. However, determining wild mammal restoration goals is very challenging due to difficulties in obtaining data on current mammal density and due to unclear information on what mammal density values should be used as a reference. Here we chose a 154 ha conservation area within one of the last remnants of the mountainous Chaco from central Argentina. We suspected that extensive and unreported defaunation had occurred due to past human pressure and the introduction of non-native mammals. To conduct the analyses, we used a simplified technique that integrates methods used in rangeland and ecological sciences. Results: Eight native mammal species including only one herbivore species, and four non-native mammal species including three herbivore species were detected during 6113 camera trap days. We used known cattle densities as estimated by droppings and direct counts, together with the relative abundance indexes obtained from camera trap photos to calculate the densities of the other species, correcting for mammal size. Densities for the least and most abundant native species were 0.2 and 1.33 individuals km−2, respectively; and for non-native species, 0.03 and 5.00 individuals km−2, respectively. Native and non-native species represented 0.8% and 99.2%, respectively, of the biomass estimates. Reference values for native herbivore biomass, as estimated from net primary productivity, were 68 times higher than values estimated for the study area (3179 vs. 46.5 kg km−2). Conclusions: There is an urgent need to increase native mammals, with special emphasis on herbivore biomass and richness, while non-native mammal numbers must be reduced. As cattle are widespread in large portions of the globe and there is a lot of experience estimating their abundances, the ratio method we used extrapolating from cattle to other large- and medium-sized mammals could facilitate estimating mammal restoration goals in other small and defaunated areas, where traditional methods are not feasible when target mammal densities get very low. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earth's tropical savannas typically support high biomass of diverse grazing herbivores that depend on a highly fluctuating resource: high-quality forage. An annual wet–dry cycle, fire and herbivory combine to influence forage quality and availability throughout the year. In the savannas of northern Australia, a depauperate suite of large native (marsupial) herbivores (wallaroos [Osphranter spp.] and the agile wallaby [Notamacropus agilis]) compete for resources with non-native large herbivores introduced in the late nineteenth century, particularly bovines (feral and managed cattle [Bos spp.] and feral water buffalo [Bubalus bubalis]) that now dominate the landscape. Anecdotal reports of recent population declines of large macropods and negative impacts of bovines highlight the need to better understand the complex relationship between forage, fire and abundance of native and introduced large herbivores. The pyric herbivory conceptual model, which posits complex feedbacks between fire and herbivory and was developed outside Australia, predicts that native and introduced large herbivores will both respond positively to post-fire forage production in Australian savannas where they co-occur. We used grazing exclosures, forage biomass and nutrient analyses and motion-sensor camera-trapping to evaluate the overall robustness of the pyric herbivory model in the Australian context, specifically whether forage quantity and quality are impacted by herbivory, season and fire activity, and which forage attributes most influence large grazing herbivore abundance. Forage quantity, as measured by live, dead and total herbaceous biomass and proportion of biomass alive, was higher inside herbivore exclosures, even at relatively low densities of herbivores. Forage quality, as measured by fibre content, was not affected by herbivory, however, crude protein content of live herbaceous biomass was greater outside herbivore exclosures. Recent fire was an important predictor of all measures of forage quantity and quality. Recent fire occurrence decreased overall quantity (biomass) but increased quality (decreased fibre content and increased crude protein content); late dry season fires resulted in forage with the highest crude protein content. The predictions of the pyric herbivory conceptual model are consistent with observations of the feeding behaviour of introduced bovines and some large macropods in northern Australian savannas, lending support to the global generality of pyric herbivory in fire-prone grassy biomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sleep–wake patterns and nocturnal activity of diurnal birds have been little studied. Here, we analysed, by chance, those behaviours for free-living Eurasian Blue Tits (Cyanistes caeruleus, Linnaeus, 1758) roosting in nest boxes equipped with motion sensor-triggered Internet Protocol (IP) cameras. By monitoring individual birds over six sessions for more than one hundred nights each session, we found repetitive activity patterns during the night as well as a correlation between daylength and roosting times. Using the same method, we found the roosting behaviour of Eurasian Blue Tits (Cyanistes caeruleus, Linnaeus, 1758) to be comparable to that of Great Tits (Parus major, Linnaeus, 1758) and Common Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris, Linnaeus, 1758) in nest boxes in the same structure. These data, which we showed can be collected relatively easily and inexpensively, suggest that in rural areas the sleep–wake behaviours of free-living birds are mainly determined by the circadian rhythm associated with natural light. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans have been altering the Mediterranean landscapes for millennia. To diminish the probability of encounters with domestic animals, humans and their activities, many species adjust their behavior to become more nocturnal. Even habitat-generalist species, such as red fox and stone marten that are somehow tolerant to environmental changes, might be affected by anthropic disturbances. Nevertheless, only a small number of studies were implemented in Iberia targeting these mesocarnivores' activity patterns, and fewer have assessed the temporal ecology of these species in Eucalyptus plantations, the current main forest cover in Portugal. Based on camera traps, we aimed to analyze: 1) the temporal and spatio-temporal activity patterns of red fox and stone marten; and 2) how they are affected by distinct human disturbances (i.e., humans, livestock, dogs, plantations, and hunting). Foxes presented a higher crepuscular activity, while martens were entirely nocturnal, suggesting some avoidance behavior. Both mesocarnivores showed a higher overlap with dogs' activity than with humans or livestock. Foxes' activity patterns vary between seasons and habitats but were not influenced by the hunting period. Results suggest that both mesocarnivores, besides setting apart their activity from humans related disturbances, also show a tendency to temporally avoid each other. While the increase of nocturnality may indicate an anthropic disturbance impact, a reduction of activity overlap between mesocarnivores may be a strategy to reduce competition. These results may help support the sustainable management of landscapes by highlighting critical periods where activity overlaps may occur, and thus the anthropic impacts on wildlife are higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large carnivores are vulnerable to population decline due to their k-selected traits in fragmented human-dominated landscapes. In the semi-arid landscape of western India, tiger (top predator) populations went locally extinct from most of the forested ecosystems, while the mesopredators (leopards, hyenas, wolves) managed to survive in these mosaics of forest, agriculture, pasturelands, ravines, and human habitations. In this study, we used camera traps to survey two protected areas (PAs) in the semi-arid western Indian landscape—Mukundara (without tigers) and Ranthambhore (with high-density tiger population)—and compare the abundance and activity of mesopredators between sites to assess the effect of top predator presence on mesopredators. The carnivore community was more diverse in Ranthambhore (well-protected) than in the human disturbed habitats of Mukundara; however, the relative abundance of mesopredators was higher in Mukundara. Striped hyena density was estimated higher in Mukundara (40.6 ± 7.36/100 km2) than in Ranthambhore (9.3 ± 1.3/100 km2), while leopard density estimates were comparable (Mukundara, 10.9 ± 3.0/100 km2; Ranthambhore, 11.2 ± 1.6/100 km2). Temporal activities of carnivores in Mukundara indicated avoidance of human disturbance, while in Ranthambhore, it seemed primarily governed by competitive interactions between carnivores. Our findings are indicative of the mesopredator release hypothesis, where the number of mesopredators increased in the absence of top predator; however, the results are confounded by differential resource availability, human disturbance, and poaching levels between sites. The outcomes emphasised the importance of conserving habitat fragments (irrespective of charismatic species’ presence) in human-dominated landscapes to conserve carnivore populations. Conservation investments should focus on habitat protection, securing inviolate areas inside the PAs and restoring connectivity between PAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An intriguing yet little studied aspect of social insect foraging is the use of resources other than food. We are interested in the collection of plant resins for nest construction and defense by tropical stingless bees. However, direct observations of stingless bee foraging and potential predation activities by natural enemies at resin sources are particularly rare and therefore require a trade-off between observation time and the number of sources observed. We used affordable remote microcontroller-based camera traps to enable for longer durations of continuous and simultaneous monitoring of resin foraging at multiple resin sources in an undisturbed lowland dipterocarp rainforest in Brunei Darussalam (Borneo). Analysis of photos from camera traps shows that stingless bee visitation to resin sources was uncommon at resin wounds in the forest understory (27.3%). Bees visiting wounds displayed a propensity for short and regular resin foraging bouts of up to a few days to particular resin sources. Where there were encounters between stingless bees and natural enemies, i.e., assassin bugs at resin sources, there was a 100% predation success rate (n = 4). Our study suggests that microcontroller-based camera traps complement or may even replace in-person field observations, in particular for observations of organisms or interactions occurring at low abundance. They allow for systemically collected observations which can form the basis for hypothesis-driven research as part of "next-generation natural history". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Precise and accurate estimates of population size are fundamental to the study and conservation of wildlife. Identification of individual animals is often required to obtain such estimates, yet manual classifications by human observers induce bias, which can propagate across long-term datasets or large spatial scales. Pattern recognition algorithms have been developed to aid identification efforts and here, we demonstrate the efficacy of this technology to reduce misidentifications of African large carnivores in historic data. We used a 7-year camera-trapping dataset from north-central Namibia and revised cheetah and leopard individuals identified by human observers through a pattern recognition algorithm, HotSpotter, implemented in a web-based and open-source application, the African Carnivore Wildbook (ACW). Verification of individuals with ACW resulted in a reduction from 43 to 40 cheetah individuals and from 59 to 46 leopard individuals. This is equivalent to a difference of 7% and 22% of individuals identified for cheetahs and leopards, respectively. Additionally, this revision increased the proportion of individuals that were detected over multiple years and at multiple locations. Our findings may have implications for population and trend estimates of these and other species, given that current estimates often rely on manual identification that could overestimate population size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A small isolated population of the snow sheep (Ovis nivicola Eschscholtz 1829) inhabits the Kodar Mountain Ridge in Transbaikalia; it has been listed in the Red Data Book of Russia since 2020. The Kodar Mountain Ridge is the southwesternmost part of the modern distribution range of the snow sheep. This study is aimed at revealing the modern population structure of snow sheep in the Kodar Ridge using camera traps for the monitoring of two subpopulations as an example. We collected photo and video material in July–September 2019 and July–September 2020, when the animals were sedentary on summer pastures. The average group size in summer was low: 2.4–3.5 for females with young and 1.1–1.8 for males. In summer, the maximum group size was six for males or eight for females with young. Adult males and females with juveniles were slightly separated spatially in summer, but the habitats of both overlap, or the distances between them do not exceed several kilometers. It has been shown that the Kodar snow sheep are characterized by high female fertility: the number of lambs is close to the number of adult females. In total, in all areas, the proportion of adult females amounted to about 30%, and was the same for lambs (30%), 15% for yearlings, and 26% for males (including 6% for sheep six years old or older). The low proportion of old males and some traces of hunting indicated that, at least until recently, the population had experienced certain poaching pressure. Because the study area on the left bank of Sredniy Sakukan River included important summer habitats of the snow sheep, it can be proposed for inclusion in the protected area of Kodar National Park. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatiotemporal habitat selection by wildlife is an important strategy for adapting to fear of humans and their activities. However, information on the factors that influence the daily activity patterns of herbivores is lacking, especially in areas where there are few lethal human activities (e.g., where there is little hunting pressure). We investigated factors affecting the daily activity patterns of forest-dwelling sika deer (Cervus nippon) in an agricultural landscape with little hunting pressure in Hokkaido, Japan, to determine the mechanisms of wildlife adaptation to non-lethal human activities (defined here as area of farmland and road length). We found that non-lethal human activities did not influence the daily activity patterns of deer in this area. However, daytime activity increased with increasing area of each forest and tended to increase with total tree basal area, and it was greatest in summer. Our results suggest that an understanding of the background lethal human activity status within an area is necessary for estimating the influence of non-lethal human activities on the adaptation strategies of wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat partitioning is a key mechanism that allows coexistence of species, but studies of sympatric mesocarnivore species' habitat partitioning have mostly been conducted at pre-determined single spatial scales, without considering the spatial scales of habitat selections (SSHS). In this study, we applied a multi-scale occupancy modeling approach to the camera trap data of five sympatric mesocarnivore species in a cool temperate forest in eastern Japan to accurately estimate their habitat preferences and SSHS. We constructed hierarchical Bayesian models with a detection process assumed separately from the occupancy process. This was done to consider inherent detection bias in the camera trap data, due to variations of local environmental variables between camera trap deployment points. In the occupancy model, avoidance of conifer plantations and preference for sloped sites were detected for multiple species, and estimated SSHS for these significant habitat preferences showed both intraspecific and interspecific differentiation for most focal species. These results signify that a mesocarnivore species' habitat selection occurs simultaneously at multiple spatial scales. Furthermore, they also imply that interspecific differences of habitat selection processes and the spatial scales at which they occur both contribute to the coexistence of sympatric mesocarnivores in their natural habitats. In the detection model, bias in site use was indeed detected, reinforcing the existing argument for the necessity of its consideration in habitat selection modeling of survey data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporal niche partitioning may be influenced not only by interspecific competition, but also by weather conditions. Decreased food availability and dietary overlap between species can increase the degree of interspecific competition during winter, thereby promoting temporal niche partitioning. However, multiple species can be simultaneously active under similar weather conditions (high temperature and little snowfall) in winter to reduce energy costs and increase temporal niche overlap. In this study, we aimed to determine the degree of temporal niche partitioning among red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), and Japanese martens (Martes melampus), and its variation with seasonal climate change in terms of interspecific competition and weather conditions. We obtained data on the target species through a camera-trap survey conducted in a heavy snowfall area in northeastern Japan. We analyzed the degree of temporal niche partitioning based on diel activity overlap, co-occurrence rates per night, and behavioral avoidance within 1 or 2 h. We also evaluated the relationship between the presence or absence of activity per night and nightly weather conditions (temperature, precipitation (snowfall), moonlight). We observed a high degree of temporal niche overlap among the three species. In particular, the degree of temporal niche overlap was higher in winter than that in other seasons because the activity of the three species was greatly affected by low temperatures and snowfall in winter. As a winter survival strategy, coping with the weather may be more important than avoiding competition. Our results conflict with the hypothesis predicting temporal niche partitioning in winter, suggesting that weather effects can be an important factor in varying temporal niche partitioning among carnivores. Significance statement: This study revealed that the temporal niche overlap of three carnivores in northeastern Japan was higher in winter than that in other seasons because they were simultaneously active under similar weather conditions (high temperature and little snowfall) in winter to reduce energy costs. This indicates that coping with the weather may be more important than avoiding interspecific competition as a winter survival strategy. Our results conflict with the hypothesis predicting temporal niche partitioning among carnivores in winter due to restricted food resources and dietary overlap. This suggests that the different degrees of weather effects can be an important factor in varying temporal niche partitioning among carnivores. Because extreme changes in weather conditions such as extremely high temperatures, blizzards, and heavy rains, have occurred worldwide in recent years, weather conditions may significantly affect the niche partitioning among carnivores distributed in different environments worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camera traps are a popular tool in terrestrial wildlife research due to their low costs, easy operability, and usefulness for studying a wide array of species and research questions. The vast numbers of images they generate often require multiple human data extractors, yet accuracy and inter-observer variance are rarely considered. We compared results from 10 observers who processed the same set of multi-species camera trap images (n = 11,560) from seven sites. We quantified inter-observer agreement and variance for (1) the number of mammals identified, (2) the number of images saved, (3) species identification accuracy and the types of mistakes made, and (4) counts of herbivore groups and individuals. We analysed the influence of observer experience, species distinctiveness and camera location. Observers varied significantly regarding image processing rates, the number of mammals found and images saved, and species misidentifications. Only one observer detected all 22 mammals (range: 18–22, n = 10). Experienced observers processed images up to 4.5 times faster and made less mistakes regarding species detection and identification. Missed species were mostly small mammals (56.5%) while misidentifications were most common among species with low phenotypic distinctiveness. Herbivore counts had high to very high variances with mainly moderate agreement across observers. Observers differed in how they processed images and what they recorded. Our results raise important questions about the reliability of data extracted by multiple observers. Inter-observer bias, observer-related variables, species distinctiveness and camera location are important considerations if camera trapping results are to be used for population estimates or biodiversity assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Namibia, leopards (Panthera pardus) are widely distributed, used commercially as trophy animals and are often persecuted for perceived or real predation on livestock and valuable game species outside protected areas. Therefore, leopard populations living in protected areas might be important source populations and for maintaining connectivity. Little data on their population sizes and densities are available from the northern part of the country, particularly from protected areas. Here, we estimated leopard densities using a spatial capture–recapture approach in northern Namibia: (i) the Khaudum National Park (KNP) in north-east Namibia with an annual average rainfall of 450 mm and (ii) the Lower Hoanib River (LHR) in north-west Namibia with an annual average rainfall of 25 mm. With an effort of 2430 and 2074 camera trap nights in the KNP and LHR, respectively, 11 adult female and six adult male leopards were identified in the KNP, whilst only one adult female leopard was detected once in the LHR. For the KNP, a maximum likelihood approach (using the package SECR) revealed a density estimate of 2.74 leopards/100 km2, whereas a Bayesian approach (using the package SPACECAP) revealed a density estimate of 1.83 leopards/100 km2. For the LHR, no density estimate could be determined and it is suggested that the leopard density in such an arid environment is low. These are the first leopard density estimates based on camera trap surveys provided for these protected areas and thus of importance for further monitoring programs to understand leopard population dynamics. We discuss our findings with current habitat changes and conservation measures in both study areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) has lost much of its historical range within South Africa. The remaining suitable habitat for the species includes both protected and unprotected areas in a fragmented landscape mosaic, bringing the species into close contact with human settlements. In order to make successful management decisions for the conservation of the species, more information is needed on leopard populations that exist in these highly fragmented habitats. The aim of our study was to determine the density of a population of leopards on Loskop Dam Nature Reserve (LDNR), Mpumalanga, South Africa. LDNR is located in a highly fragmented landscape and is surrounded by a variety of human settlements including game farms, livestock farms and rural towns. There are several smaller reserves 20–45 km away from LDNR, which may allow leopard movement and connectivity within the region. We determined population density by running a 164-day camera trap survey that covered a total area of 148.77 km2 within the reserve. Leopard density was estimated using Spatially Explicit Capture–Recapture models implemented in the program 'secr' in R using four different models. The most supported model was a sex-based model that allowed for differences in detection probabilities between males and females. The population density estimated with this model was 7.7 ± 2.0 (range 4.7–12.6) leopards per 100 km2. This density estimate in LDNR is comparable to other leopard populations in protected areas with similar habitat types and fragmented landscapes within South Africa. This study highlights that isolated, protected natural areas have the potential to harbour significant populations of leopards, which is important for the management and conservation of the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Arctic, nest predation risk is higher at lower latitudes, and some shorebirds (Charadriidae) nesting at the southernmost limits of their ranges near Churchill, Manitoba tend to experience lower nest success than those at other Arctic sites. This study investigates whether proximity to human settlement affects predator abundance, predation risk, and shorebird daily nest survival near Churchill by measuring these variables at varying distances from town during two nesting seasons. Active fox dens decreased in number close to town; however, there was no clear trend in avian predator abundance in relation to town. Predation risk on artificial nests decreased as distances from active fox dens and Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorarius parasiticus) nests increased, decreased with proximity to town, and decreased with a camera present. Shorebird daily nest survival tended to be lower near jaeger nests and there was some support for a positive effect of camera presence and proximity to town. Overall, these results suggest that shorebird nest survival in the sub-Arctic can be heavily impacted by proximity to nests of avian predators, but that shorebirds may benefit from proximity to town likely due to reduced fox denning activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical forest reserves have conservation value for terrestrial mammals and are threatened by anthropogenic pressures, especially conversion to other land-use types. To assess mammalian biodiversity of forest reserves in Sabah, Borneo, we used camera trapping data to estimate species richness, beta diversity, phylogenetic and functional diversity in nine forest reserves with different management classifications and backgrounds. Multiregional multispecies occupancy models (MSOM) were used to differentiate species occupancy in the reserves, and the estimates were transformed into biodiversity metrics. We found a significant difference in mammal composition within each forest reserve, with various functional and phylogenetic clustering or dispersion levels indicated by the standard effect of mean pairwise distances (SES MPD). Redundancy analysis (RDA) was used for both the observed data and MSOM estimates, modeling numerous environmental covariates and the forest reserves as random effects, finding that the forest reserve random effects were mainly responsible for structuring the mammal communities. Deramakot Forest Reserve was found to have overall high species richness, phylogenetic and functional diversity compared to other reserves. This reserve has been particularly successful at sustainable forest management and long-term forest certification, highlighting long-term conservation gains of sustainability programs for terrestrial mammalian diversity. Conversely, several reserves showed lower diversity scores overall than IUCN presumed extant species lists, highlighting local defaunation while still retaining high profile (critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable) species. This study highlights the fragility of terrestrial mammal assemblages in forest reserves across the state and the need for mitigation, refaunation, and an integrated approach to forest management and biodiversity conservation to allow for comprehensive sustainable management programs to ensure long-term conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canopy bridges are crossing structures specific to mitigate the impact of roads on arboreal animals. Long-term monitoring of such infrastructures together with the analysis of design preferences has never been done in South America. To avoid the roadkills of a threatened primate species, the black lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysopygus), in Guareí, São Paulo, Brazil, we installed two designs of canopy bridges: a wood pole bridge and a rope bridge. We aimed to (1) evaluate the functionality (number of species and events) of both designs, (2) test the design preference of each species, and (3) determine if there were seasonal differences in the use of canopy bridges. We monitored the canopy bridges continuously since their installation with camera traps during 3 years. We recorded nine mammal and one lizard species crossing on the canopy bridges as well as 13 bird species using them as perches. Overall, the probability of crossing was higher on the wood pole bridge and the number of crossings, considering both designs, was higher during the dry season. One lizard and seven mammal species used the wood pole bridge, including the black lion tamarin, and six mammal species used the rope bridge. Four out of five species tested, including the black lion tamarin, preferred the wood pole bridge. While replications of this experimental design are necessary to obtain a more robust evaluation of the effectiveness of these canopy bridges, our study suggests that wood pole bridges might be an effective tool to reduce roadkills of the endangered black lion tamarin and possibly other arboreal species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the interspecific interactions (spatial and temporal) between predators and their prey species is important to understanding the prey preferences for conservation and management decisions. However, due to large predators' wide-ranging, nocturnal, and cryptic behaviour, it is often difficult to assess their interactions with prey species. Therefore, we determined the spatial and temporal interactions of leopard (Panthera pardus) with potential prey species in Kalesar National Park (KNP) using camera traps from January 2020 to April 2020. KNP is situated in the foothills of the Shiwalik mountain range of Himalaya, North India. We used encounter rates and activity patterns to understand the spatial and temporal overlap between leopards and prey species. We used composite scores to predict the potential prey preferences using the photo-capture data. A total sampling effort of 1150 trap nights documented 92 photo-captures of leopards with a detection rate of 17.3 leopards per 100/trap nights. Leopards exhibited bimodal peaks and were active throughout the day and night but showed more diurnal activity. Leopards had the highest temporal overlap with chital (Axis axis) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) and the highest spatial overlap with wild boar, peafowl (Pavo cristatus), and sambar (Rusa unicolor). Due to their high composite scores, wild boar, sambar, peafowl, and chital were predicted the most preferred prey species for leopards. Our results suggest that effective management of preferred prey species in the area is required to ensure the conservation of the leopard population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the use of space by endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) can contribute to their conservation because persecution by livestock farmers is a major cause of mortality when wild dogs range outside protected wildlife areas. Scent-marking is likely to be a key mechanism by which African wild dog packs organise their mutual use of space, and here, we report the discovery that African wild dog packs repeatedly shared a scent-marking latrine. We present the first systematic records of scent communication between packs of African wild dogs. Camera trapping for 13 months recorded four wild dog packs in northern Botswana repeatedly scent-marking with urine and faeces at a latrine where two dirt roads crossed a large game trail, in the overlap zone of two of the packs' home ranges. This site was visited by wild dogs at a mean interval of 12.2 days, with a mean of 10.3 days between consecutive visits by different packs, and a mean of 28.7 days between consecutive visits by the same pack. Dominant dogs scent-marked every time they visited this site for a minute or longer. Sniffing and countermarking of scent-marks from previous visits showed that this shared marking site acted as a bulletin board, with 12 exchanges of information between packs over a period of 13 months. Significance statement: African wild dogs are endangered large carnivores, whose populations suffer continual attrition from lethal conflict with livestock owners. Deterring wild dogs from leaving protected wildlife areas will reduce this conflict-related mortality. All terrestrial mammals mark their home ranges with scent, and using artificial scent-marks to simulate African wild dog home range boundaries along protected area borders has the potential to reduce conflict killings by deterring the dogs from leaving the protected areas. Our discovery of multiple African wild dog packs scent-marking at a persistent, shared latrine, where scent-marking depended on sex and social status, is a breakthrough in our understanding of inter-pack communication in this endangered species and a key step towards developing artificial home range boundary markers that will deter them from leaving protected wildlife areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Asiatic wild dog or 'dhole' (Cuon alpinus) is an apex predator inhabiting south and south-east Asia. Lack of detailed information on its biology has designated it as one of the lesser-known species throughout its distributional range. Herein, we report the presence and activity pattern of dholes in Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha, India through camera trap surveys from 25th August 2018 to 29 December 2019. From a total of 3150 camera-trapping nights at 123 sampling sites, we obtained 28 independent detections of dhole at nine sites. The activity of species is diurnal, especially in the morning and its activity seems to coincide with its major prey. Debrigarh wildlife sanctuary could be an important habitat and source population for dholes in India, because of abundant prey, lack of disturbance and good habitat connectivity with the central Indian landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Niche theory is frequently used as a framework to integrate environmental variables and species interactions to describe species geographic distribution. Yet, the scale at which species respond to the environment and other species is rarely considered in species distribution modeling. Here we examined the effect of spatial scale on species distribution modeling for a multi-species canid community across a complex landscape. Objectives: We examined the relationships between the occurrence of three canid species and landcover variables at different spatial scales and tested the effect of intraguild co-occurrence of dominant species (coyote and red fox) on the distribution of the smallest and subordinate species (swift fox), a species of conservation concern in North America's grasslands. Methods: We predicted the geographical distribution of the canid species and their responses to variation in the landscape by identifying how species associate with habitat and at what scales. We modeled occupancy of each species with a Bayesian approach and incorporating Bayesian Latent Indicator Scale Selection to identify 'scales of effect' independently by species and land cover type. Results: We demonstrated that each species responded uniquely to the landcover features examined at different scales and expressed distinct habitat relationships. We obtained low detection rates for all canid species (0.10–0.14). Mean occupancy probabilities for both fox species were low (< 0.05), especially when compared to coyote (> 0.60).We found no evidence of intraguild co-occurrence affecting the subordinate species. Conclusions: We demonstrate substantial variation in the spatial scales of the species-habitat relationships. The distribution of swift fox appears more limited by resource availability that is reflected by larger landscape attributes than the presence or absence of other guild members per se. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terrestrial mammal communities in the mangrove forests of Borneo are generally poorly studied due to the access difficulties associated with wetland habitats. We used camera-trapping methods to conduct a survey from June 2015 to May 2018 to produce baseline data on the species richness and community composition of terrestrial mammal fauna in a mixed-mangrove forest. This survey was conducted in Kuala Abai, which is located in the Lower Kinabatangan floodplain of eastern Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. A total of 3,742 camera trap-days were recorded from five camera trap locations, which resulted in 797 independent photographs of nine terrestrial mammal species from six families and four orders. The most frequently detected species was the bearded pig (Sus barbatus) followed by the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), Sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) and Bornean sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). Seven of the species recorded were of global or regional conservation significance according to the IUCN Red-list (2020). Six of the species were additionally listed as locally protected species under the Sabah Wildlife Conservation Enactment (1997). Of particular importance was the detection of the extremely rare and endangered otter civet (Cynogale bennettii), which is likely a new locality record in a mixed-mangrove forest in the eastern part of Sabah. Overall, our study demonstrates the importance of the Kuala Abai mixed-mangrove forest to fauna conservation in Sabah and the effectiveness of camera-trapping techniques for studying terrestrial mammals in wetland habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sympatric species with similar niches compete for common resources, often resulting in spatio-temporal avoidance. To date, little is known about the spatio-temporal interactions of ungulates in forested habitats. Using camera traps, we investigated the spatio-temporal responses of alpine chamois to the presence of red deer in the mountain forests of northern Croatia during the four seasons of 2018/2019. We hypothesized that chamois activity patterns should be affected by the presence of red deer, leading to either temporal or spatial segregation between the species. Our results showed that chamois tended to be more active during the day when red deer were absent, and showed contrasting patterns of activity across seasons, from bimodal to multimodal. However, temporal overlap coefficients between chamois and red deer were moderate throughout the study period, ranging from 0.57 in summer to 0.68 in autumn. Conversely, we found inconsistent/random occupancy patterns of chamois and red deer at different camera trap locations in different seasons. Our results are among the few available data on the interaction of these two species in forested areas and suggest weak effects of red deer on the spatio-temporal behaviour of Alpine chamois. However, finer-scale data may be required to better understand the relationship between these species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interest in trophic interactions and ecosystem functions derived from carcass consumption by scavengers has been increasing. Here, we conducted the first evaluation of scavenging processes in an ecosystem with heavy snow, located in northern Japan, which is characterized by the limitations of visual and odor cues to detect carcasses. In this study, we verified the behavioral traits and assemblage compositions of avian and mammalian scavengers, which consumed six different carcass types buried in snow. We measured the visits of scavengers using camera traps between 2010 and 2020. The total scavenger richness observed was relatively low (only 12 species) compared to warmer biomes. We observed seven avian scavenger species, but their visit frequencies were extremely low compared with those of nocturnal mammalian scavengers, such as raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and martens (Martes melampus), which were able to detect carcasses more rapidly and frequently. Our findings imply that large snow piles significantly prevent avian scavengers from detecting carcasses. In contrast, the snow piles could protect carcasses from the freezing air and ensure the occurrence of a basal level of microbial decomposition, possibly leading to carcass decomposition. This probably results in carcasses still providing odor cues for mammalian scavengers with heightened sense of smell. Moreover, considering the high carcass consumption rate (91.3% of full-body carcass; n = 23) and short carcass detection times (approximately 90 h) observed, it is possible that scavenging in heavy snowfall conditions has become systematically integrated into the foraging tactics of many mammalian scavengers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of activity patterns is important for understanding the capacity of animals for adapting their behavior based on their habitat conditions. Among bears, daily activity patterns are considered to be strongly influenced by regional climate conditions. We monitored the activity patterns (active vs. inactive) of the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) using infrared camera traps (from May 2013 to November 2016) in the Qinling Mountains, China. We used 125 photos, with 19,132 camera days from 55 camera locations. Based on relative independent capture (RIC), bears were found to be intensively active during June (5.86 ± 1.05 SE), July (8.45 ± 2.74), September (14.83 ± 6.13), and October (8.70 ± 3.43), with activity levels gradually decreasing beyond October. After this decline, activities eventually come to a halt when the bears enter in hibernation. We found that their hibernation period was shorter in the Qinling bears, with only 3 months of denning from January to March. Based on their daily patterns, bears were predominantly active during the daytime both in spring (70.83 ± 35.41%) and summer (52.09 ± 28.89%), but more active at twilight during autumn (51.12 ± 42.88%). We assumed that food preferences and food availability (due to warmer regional climatic conditions) might be responsible for such deviations in daily and monthly activity patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Livestock grazing is one of the most widespread types of anthropogenic land use, even occurs in many protected areas and has become a threat to wildlife worldwide. Understanding livestock-wildlife interactions is crucial for rare large carnivores conservation. In China, free-ranging cattle within forests degrade the habitat of the tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus), but quantitative assessments of how livestock affect the spatial and temporal use by the major ungulate prey of the two endangered felids are very limited. Objectives: This study aimed to examine the interactions of several sympatric wildlife species with livestock at a fine spatiotemporal scale in a human-dominated forest landscape. Methods: Based on a large-scale camera-trapping data across the China-Russia border, we used N-mixture models, two-species occupancy models and activity pattern overlap to understand the effects of cattle grazing on three ungulate species (sika deer Cervus nippon, wild boars Sus scrofa and roe deer Capreolus pygargus). Results: Spatially, with cattle activity increasing, wild boar and roe deer had different degrees of decline in the intensity of habitat use. Sika deer were displaced as more cattle encroached on forest habitat. Temporally, in the presence of cattle, wild boar and sika deer decreased their activities in the day. In addition, three wild ungulates trend to exhibit lower spatiotemporal overlap with cattle at shared camera sites. Conclusions: Our study shows that wildlife species may reduce the probability of habitat use by spatial avoidance and changing the daily activity patterns. We underscore that fine-scale (i.e. camera-site level) spatiotemporal avoidance is likely a key component of co-occurrence between livestock and the sympatry of competing ungulates inhabiting forest ecosystems. Given prey were depressed, efforts to minimize the livestock disturbance on these species need to be considered to ensure their sustained recoveries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communication behaviors play a critical role in both an individual's fitness as well as the viability of populations. Solitary animals use chemical communication (i.e., scent marking) to locate mates and defend their territory to increase their own fitness. Previous research has suggested that striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) do not perform scent-marking behaviors, despite being best known for using odor as chemical defense. We used video camera traps to document behaviors exhibited by striped skunks at a remote site in coastal California between January 2012 and April 2015. Our camera traps captured a total of 71 visits by striped skunks, the majority of which (73%) included a striped skunk exhibiting scent-marking behaviors. Overall, we documented 8 different scent-marking behaviors. The most frequent behaviors we documented were cheek rubbing (45.1%), investigating (40.8%), and claw marking (35.2%). The behaviors exhibited for the longest durations on average were grooming ( x ¯ = 34. 4 s) and investigating ( x ¯ = 21.2 s). Although previous research suggested that striped skunks do not scent mark, we documented that at least some populations do and our findings suggest that certain sites are used for communication via scent marking. Our study further highlights how camera traps allow researchers to discover previously undocumented animal behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration occurs over a relatively short time period, but can result in an increased likelihood of mortality. Many populations of Southern Mountain Caribou, an Endangered subspecies in Canada, demonstrate altitudinal migration when moving between alpine and subalpine ranges. These caribou can encounter a high density of predators when transiting low- or mid-elevation valleys. We used camera traps to document the movements of caribou as well as moose, a sympatric ungulate that enhances the distribution and abundance of shared predators, through a mid-elevation valley that was characterized by resource roads and forestry clearcuts. The seasonal occurrence of moose coincided with the migratory movements of caribou (June–September). Similarly, the relative abundance of wolves and bears was greatest when caribou occupied the corridor. We used logistic regression to relate camera images to a range of ecological variables that we hypothesized influenced the seasonal distribution and risk of predation for moose and caribou. The most predictive model suggested that the probability of occurrence of caribou increased with temperature, precipitation, and week of the year. A factor for year revealed that the occurrence of caribou declined over the monitoring period. The most parsimonious model for moose included the same covariates as the most predictive model for caribou. A comparison of the frequency of caribou images with those crossings inferred from GPS-collar data revealed that the camera traps were relatively ineffective at monitoring the migratory movements of caribou. This study provided unique insights into the migration of a declining population of caribou, their interactions with predators, and the limitations of using camera traps to document the infrequent movements of low-density species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Giant petrels Macronectes spp. are the largest avian predator-scavengers in the Southern Ocean and feed both by direct predation and by scavenging carrion. However, they are not considered to be predators of adult albatrosses. We report the first records of Southern Giant Petrels M. giganteus attacking and killing incubating Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatrosses Thalassarche chlororhynchos on Gough Island. From 2017 to 2019, a total of 87 adult carcasses were found near nests within long-term monitoring areas. In 2019, 16 motion-activated cameras filmed 32 nests between September and January, during incubation up until chicks were no longer guarded by their parents. Camera footage revealed at least six different male Southern Giant Petrels independently attacking 11 incubating Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatrosses, killing and feeding on 5 of those. We also recorded a Southern Giant Petrel attacking a brooding Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross and carrying its chick away. Of these camera-monitored nests breeding success was 18.75%, nest failure was due to parent mortality (n = 6), chick mortality (3) and nest abandonment (17), with giant petrels being confirmed or strongly suspected in at least 14 of 26 cases (54%). We observed these attacks in two out of 11 study areas, but it is uncertain whether this behaviour occurs elsewhere on Gough Island, or whether it is a novel hunting method learnt by a few individuals. However, if this behaviour spreads across albatross colonies, the resulting increase in adult mortality could have a significant impact on this endangered Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Effective planning for protected areas and wildlife population management requires a firm understanding of the location of the species' core habitat patches, the dispersal corridors connecting them, and the risk they face from key threats, notably deforestation. Objectives: To quantify and map core habitat patches and dispersal corridors for Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi diardi), Asiatic golden cat (Catopuma temminckii) and marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata) across the 16,000 km2 tropical rainforest Kerinci Seblat landscape, Sumatra. Also, to model future forest loss and fragmentation and its effect on landscape connectivity for populations of these threatened species. Methods: Using data from camera trap (671 sites/55,856 trap nights), and occupancy modelling, we developed habitat use maps and converted these into species-specific landscape resistance layers. We applied cumulative resistant kernels to map core areas and we used factorial least-cost paths to define dispersal corridors. A 17-year deforestation dataset was used to predict deforestation risk towards the integrity of corridors and core areas. Results: The occupancy estimates of the three cats were similar (0.18–0.29), with preference shown for habitats with dense tree cover, medium elevation and low human disturbance. The overlap between core areas and corridors across the three species was moderate, 7–11% and 10%, respectively. We predicted future loss of 1052 km2 of forest in the landscape, of which 2–4% and 5% in highly importance core areas and corridors. Conclusions: This study provides a valuable guidance for identifying priority areas in need of urgent protection within and outside the protected area network, and where infrastructure development planning can incorporate wildlife conservation goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on activity rhythms are pivotal for the management of invasive alien species, as they provide basic insights into species basic ecology and may increase the success of control programs. The coypu Myocastor coypus, introduced from South America for fur farms, has become one of the most invasive rodents in Europe. Introduced coypus may affect crop productions, as well as natural vegetation and the breeding success of wading birds. In this study, we examined activity data collected through intensive camera-trapping in three Italian areas, including two natural areas in Northern and Central Italy, and a suburban area in Central Italy. Coypus were mostly diurnal in areas characterised by low predator pressure and, at night, they are mostly active in bright moonlight. Conversely, where predators, human pressure or numerical control programmes are present, coypus remarkably shift their behaviour towards crepuscular and night hours. In these last areas, nocturnal activity increased as moonlight decreased, possibly to reduce predation risk or encounters with humans. Where winter temperature are low, diurnal habits may have developed as a physiological adaptation and a strategy to preserve energy, potentially achieving a cost/effective thermal balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caves play an important ecological role for nonhuman primates in Africa and Asia. Savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) living in the Mandingue plateau of Senegal and Mali use caves for thermoregulation, where these refugia provide a cool microclimate during the hot, dry season. In this study, we examined cave use frequency for a chimpanzee community in southeastern Senegal. We used images from a camera trap placed at the mouth of a large laterite cave to investigate the hypotheses that sex, reproductive state, and seasonality influence the frequency of cave use. The camera collected 14,053 still images of chimpanzees between 2011 and 2013 over 325 camera trap days. Our results indicate no difference in cave use frequency between males and females overall. However, female reproductive state did significantly influence cave use, with lactating mothers using the cave more frequently than both males and nonlactating females. Chimpanzees used the cave during the hottest times of the day and were more likely to visit the cave during periods of low water availability and high maximum temperatures associated with the dry season. These results suggest the importance of thermoregulation in extreme heat for all individuals, and specifically for lactating females with nursing infants that likely experience higher metabolic and hydration stress. This study provides insight into the dynamics of primate cave use by contributing evidence that chimpanzee cave use may be influenced by reproductive states in addition to thermoregulatory needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Tropical forest loss and fragmentation and the associated loss in species diversity are increasing in both magnitude and scope. Much attention has been paid to how attributes of forest fragments, such as area and forest structure, impact the diversity and functional composition of vertebrate communities, while more recent work has begun to consider the importance of landscape-level variables, such as surrounding tree cover. Yet, the relative impacts of these factors on species diversity and functional composition remain unclear, particularly among under-studied taxonomic groups. Objectives: We quantified how species richness, community composition, and functional traits of terrestrial birds and mammals are associated with variation in fragment area, elevation, habitat structure and surrounding tree cover. Our goal was to determine the degree to which these diverse explanatory variables contribute to species diversity. Methods: We used motion-activated camera traps to sample terrestrial birds and mammals in 22 forest fragments in northwestern Ecuador. We used a hierarchical multi-species occupancy model accounting for imperfect species detection to estimate species richness and species composition differences among fragments, weighted multiple regression and distance matrix regression to assess covariates of richness and composition, and an RLQ ordination to assess co-variation of environmental conditions and species traits. Results: Terrestrial mammals and birds exhibited similar relationships to key environmental variables, but also showed guild-specific differences. Elevation was significantly associated with differences in species richness and community composition for both groups. Forest cover in the surrounding matrix was associated with higher species richness and changes in community composition in mammals, but not terrestrial birds. Canopy openness showed a positive association with mammalian species richness but no relationship with bird species richness. There was no association between density of large trees and richness for either group. We found no significant associations between environmental variation and functional composition among forest fragments. Conclusions: This work highlights the general importance of elevation and forest cover in shaping patterns of species diversity and composition in forest fragments and suggests heightened sensitivity to matrix conditions in mammals relative to terrestrial birds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chimarrogale platycephala (Japanese water shrew) is an endangered, semi-aquatic mammal species in Japan, and understanding the C. platycephala habitat is vital for conservation planning. However, the species is difficult to locate using conventional methods, like visual observations and camera/video traps, due to its small size, nocturnal behavior, and low population densities in semi-aquatic environments. Environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis has been used to survey distributions of macro-organisms, with the advantage of non-invasiveness, high sensitivity, and cost-effectiveness. In this study, we analyzed the eDNA in flowing water from possible C. platycephala habitats, using a metabarcoding approach that allows simultaneous multi-species detection. The eDNA of this species was detected at 2 of the 16 study sites. Based on eDNA screening data, camera trap surveys confirmed the presence of shrews at both locations. This study successfully discovered a previously unknown habitat of an endangered semi-aquatic mammal, using eDNA metabarcoding and camera traps. Wide ranging use of eDNA surveys will facilitate detection and appropriate conservation of C. platycephala, and can be applied to other critically endangered semi-aquatic mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In spite of their potential important role in shaping small mammal population dynamics, weasel (Mustela nivalis) and stoat (Mustela erminea) are understudied due to the difficulty of detecting these species. Furthermore, their conservation status in many countries is unknown due to lack of monitoring techniques. There is thus an important need for a method to detect these small mustelids. In this study, we tested the efficiency of a recently developed camera trapping device, the Mostela, as a new technique to detect mustelids in a study area near Dieren, the Netherlands. We placed Mostelas in linear landscape features, and other microhabitats thought to be frequently visited by weasels, from March to October 2017 and February to October 2018. We tested for yearly and monthly differences in site use and detectability, as well as the effect of entrance tube size, using an occupancy modelling framework. We found large seasonal differences in site use and detectability of weasels with the highest site use in June to October and highest detection probability in August and September. Detection probability was approximately two times higher for Mostelas with a 10-cm entrance tube compared with 8-cm. Furthermore, we were able to estimate activity patterns based on the time of detection, identify the sex in most detections (69.5%), and distinguish several individuals. Concluding, the Mostela seems promising as a non-invasive monitoring tool to study the occurrence and ecology of small mustelids. Further development of individual recognition from images would enable using the Mostela for density estimates applying capture-recapture models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EU Regulation no.1143/2014 on invasive species requires the EU Member States to respond promptly and efficiently in eradicating the invasive alien species listed as species of Union concern. The Northern raccoon (Procyon lotor) was introduced in Northern Italy along the river Adda and we carried out its eradication campaign between 2016 and 2019. We used an integrated approach of camera traps and live traps. A standardized approach to the camera trap survey (2904 camera trap-nights) revealed that the detectability of raccoons (0.27 ± 0.07 SD) increased in the proximity of the river and their occupancy (0.15 ± 0.09 SD) was higher in urban areas. These results allowed us to increase the trapping success whilst reducing the effort. During the captures, systematic collection of catch and effort data allowed to estimate population size (65 ± 7.8 raccoons) and thus to have a continuous update on how far the campaign was from the complete eradication of the species, allowing to adjust the trapping effort accordingly. We captured 69 raccoons (7279 cage trap nights) thanks to both systematic trapping and opportunistic activation of traps following stakeholders' reports. Stakeholders supported the campaign and some of them played an important role in reporting sightings, signs, and allowing access to their private land. Camera trap data also allowed us to make a Rapid Eradication Assessment that estimated an eradication probability of 99% after 6 months without detections. We finally give indications for future control campaigns on the species to increase removal success, reducing the effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]