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The historical topographic map preserves rich geographic information and can provide direct assistance for the reconstruction of various geographic elements. Based on the historical data of cities throughout the Qing Dynasty, the land use scale data of cities across the country was obtained using GIS and urban perimeter conversion models. This study combines city information and city circumference records from the historical maps and archives of the late Qing Dynasty to quantitatively reconstruct the use patterns of ancient China's urban land at a spatial resolution of 1° × 1°. Uncertainty analysis of the reconstruction results was conducted using modern remote sensing image data as the validation data set. The results showed the following. (1) During the late Qing Dynasty, the total area of urban land in the various provinces and regions was 1456.015 km2. The maximum value was 208.691 km2 in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, the minimum value was 1.713 km2 in Qinghai, and the average value was 56.001 km2. (2) The results of grid reconstruction show that among the 398 grids with urban land distribution, the maximum value is 64.099 km2/grid, the minimum value is 0.013 km2/grid, and the average value is 3.658 km2/grid. (3) Of all the grids with urban land, the urban land grid to the west of the Hu Line accounts for 12.5% and the east to 87.5%. (4) During the late Qing Dynasty, urban land use in China was primarily concentrated in agriculturally developed areas such as the North China Plain, the Central Plains, Jiangnan, and the Sichuan-Chongqing region. (6) The results of a kernel density estimation showed that there were obviously three core areas of urban land agglomeration in China during the late Qing Dynasty: the North China Plain-Central Plains, the Jiangsu-Shanghai-Zhejiang-Anhui area, and the Sichuan-Chongqing urban core area. This study provides basic data for urban land use during historical periods and provides a basis for the quantitative reconstruction of relevant urban land data for historical archives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between social factors and the formation of exported mug designs is blurred. This study addresses how they influence material design. Based on a quantitative typological analysis, this paper interprets the cultural relationships underlying the evolution of mug designs exported during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The study reveals: (1) the typology and handle styles of mugs can be categorized into six types, with a predominance of Cylindrical bodies and Ear-shaped handles. Notably, artistic emphasis is concentrated on Bulbous cup bodies and Tail outward curved handles; (2) the design of mugs in the eighteenth century exhibited diversity, morphological similarities, and feature continuity, evolving from representational (Ming Dynasty) to abstract and then to minimalistic styles (Qing Dynasty), particularly evident in the three-dimensional modeling of handles for ergonomic comfort (transitioning from a singular Outward curved form to Ear-shaped form, and then to Entwined branch form); (3) the body shape of mugs transformed from Arc-barrel bodies to Bulbous bodies (focusing on heat retention), and eventually to Cylindrical bodies (prioritizing heat retention, practicality, and cost-efficiency).; (4) the volume of mugs steadily increased from the early eighteenth century, generally classified into large volume (≥ 500 ml), medium volume (200-499 ml), and small volume (< 200 ml); (5) considering the extreme range of volume (11090 ml) and height (25 cm), it indicates that these two variables do not necessarily have a direct positive correlation; (6) the low center of gravity in handle design (average width of 3.4 cm against an average height of 9.9 cm for the body) reflects considerations for the distribution of liquid weight and operational convenience. The volume of sample-10 (11127 ml) notably exceeds the typical range for tea-drinking utensils, revealing the mechanism of wealth and status symbolism. Market demand orientation emerged as the primary driver for the evolution of export mug designs during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, with adjustments in the merchant system playing a secondary role. The transformation in mug design reflects the interplay of multiple factors, with the trend toward minimalist design being a response to market demands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study on export paintings has gradually shifted from artistic form to cultural connotation, with an emphasis on cross-cultural communication. Although the economic and social dimensions of their artistic value have been explored, few studies delve into the connection between Qing-era Guangzhou's trade culture and its color characteristics. Utilizing the HSV color model and the k-means algorithm, this study analyzes the color traits of 35 export paintings depicting Guangzhou landscapes and works from the "Thirteen-houses commercial zone," revealing Qing-era Guangzhou's urban impressions and Sino-Western artistic interactions. Key findings include: (1) the hue pixel range in Guangzhou export paintings primarily spans 10°–60° and 120°–250° (dominated by red and yellow-green), saturation values range from 1–82% (primarily low saturation), and value values range from 11–94% (with a wide variance); (2) compared to traditional Chinese paintings, the transformation from pure color (正色) → inter-color (间色) → projection-perspective and light source illustrates both the blending of Eastern and Western artistic cultures and a diminishing influence of traditional ceremonial culture; (3) in contrast with Western artworks, some Guangzhou export paintings display a Westernization trend in color structures, evident in vibrant colors and stark chiaroscuro contrasts. As bespoke art commodities, export paintings microscopically reflect Guangzhou's unique trade culture and socio-political dynamics. The shifts in color schemes, integration of realistic styles, and human-centric characteristics unveil the intricate interplay between quasi-realism and transcendental aesthetics in Qing-era Guangzhou, as well as the nuanced dynamics between social capital and art within a global trade network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Revealing the association between natural elements and "religion, culture, or art" through text mining of poetry provides a new perspective for in-depth interpretation of Associative Cultural Landscape. Taking Tianmu Mountain, an important spot on the Road of Tang Poetry in Eastern Zhejiang, as an example, this study focuses on 444 poems written by 269 poets from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty in the Tianmu Mountain region. Text mining methods, such as text segmentation and social network analysis, are employed to conduct frequency statistics and association analysis of Landscape Terms in the poetry. The findings are as follows: (1) The descriptions in the poems bear witness to the beautiful and diverse Natural Landscape, the abundant Humanistic Landscape, and the unique Folk Landscape of Tianmu Mountain. These collectively reflect Tianmu Mountain with its religious features of cultivating both Buddhism and Taoism, cultural features of accumulating abundance and influence, as well as artistic features of blending picturesque charm and poetic grace. (2) The Cultural Landscape of Tianmu Mountain described in poetry across different dynasties exhibits characteristics of four relationships: "Group Relationship, Hierarchical Relationship, Interactive Relationship, and Cognitive Relationship." It reveals the close association between natural elements in the Tianmu Mountain and "religion, culture, or art." The research has constructed a theoretical model for interpreting the Multi-relationship within Associative Cultural Landscape, as well as provide the support of theories and methods for understanding the characteristics and interpreting the association of global Associative Cultural Landscape. It offers crucial scientific foundations for their overall conservation and sustainable utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The formation of decorative patterns on export porcelain has risen to the research dimension of cross-regional culture. The interplay between social elements and the formal evolution of export porcelain bowls from the Qing Dynasty in Guangzhou remains nebulous. This study elucidates these underlying cultural dynamics through the lenses of utility and societal implications, thus addressing how societal components contribute to the molding of tangible cultural heritage. Key findings include: (1) A dominance of the ring-foot design in the bases of Qing Dynasty export bowls; (2) The diameter and height of the Qing Dynasty export bowls show relatively concentrated characteristics, reflecting a systemic production trend and relative consistency in form; (3) Some of the Qing Dynasty bowls exceed the parameter range of typical tableware, reflecting the adaptability and innovation of production mechanisms in responding to special market demands. The morphological evolution of the Qing Dynasty export bowls is a true reflection of the interweaving of multiple factors such as comfort design and aesthetic preferences, while the uniformity in shape is a comprehensive reflection of meeting market demands and advances in production technology. This study extends the research dimension to the interaction between standardized production techniques and socio-cultural demands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tengongzhalan Cemetery in Beijing, China is the final resting place of Matteo Ricci, an Italian missionary who brought Western mathematics and science to China in the 17th century. The cemetery is a unique blend of Chinese and Western cultures, with tombstones and monuments reflecting both traditions. Over the years, the cemetery has been destroyed and restored, but it still stands as a historical witness to the cultural exchange between East and West. The article also mentions the tombstones of other Western missionaries buried there, highlighting the impact of their collaborations with Chinese officials Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao on the development of science, technology, and culture in China during the Qing Dynasty. [Extracted from the article]

Water engineering facilities are a crucial component of the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and their distribution is closely related to the hydrological and topographical characteristics of the area. In this study, we reconstructed the canal network distribution map and water engineering facilities database of the Ming and Qing periods using ArcGIS (Geographical information systems software) 10.8 software. We employed Amos (Analyze of Moment Structures) 26.0 software to investigate the influence of various natural environmental factors on the selection of water engineering facility sites. The results revealed a significant correlation between the spatial distribution of water engineering facilities and the main channel slope and slope direction, which had a direct impact. The estimated coefficient for the main channel slope was -0.166, showing a negative correlation with the spatial distribution of water engineering facilities, while the estimated coefficient for the main channel slope direction was − 0.112, also indicating a negative correlation. Moreover, the estimated coefficient for the watershed area where water engineering facilities were located was -0.096, demonstrating a negative correlation. In contrast, the effects of tributary slope and slope direction on the spatial distribution of water engineering facilities were indirect, mediated by the watershed area where these facilities were situated. The effect size for tributary slope was -0.017, showing a negative correlation, while the effect size for tributary slope direction was 0.010, indicating a positive correlation with the spatial distribution of water engineering facilities.The study achieves the integration of the heritage of water engineering facilities along the canal from point to line, provides data support for the construction of the cultural heritage corridor of the canal, and facilitates the promotion of heritage protection and rational layout, which is of great significance to the understanding of the canal culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gradual loss of certain good cultural genes in the traditional ritual system is, to some extent, driven by the value orientation of the art of ancestral hall decoration. This article uses wall paintings as a medium to uncover significant variables affecting the decorating of ancestral hall murals and to analyze the culturally formative relationships underlying their art from a ceremonial perspective. It depends on textual excavation. The analysis demonstrates that: (1) the 521 murals generally transmit positive content; (2) the shift in the painted figures' seating and grooming from formal to casual represents the fading of ceremonial concepts; (3) The control of economic costs may be a possible explanation for the large number of figures in crouching, skirting, and side-lying postures in wall paintings; (4) The fact that the colors employed in the garments of the figures from the Ming and Qing dynasties don't follow the folk color scheme demonstrates that the creative production at that time was not constrained by a lot of ritualistic considerations. The study concludes that the absence of an educational component in the arts is a contributing factor to the diluted nature of traditional rituals in modern China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grotto temples in Henan Province, which began in the Northern Wei Dynasty and ended in the Republic of China, have been excavated and repaired to varying degrees in the Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. In this study, 119 grotto temples sited in Henan Province were considered as the research object, and the spatial and temporal distribution of grotto temples in Henan Province is analyzed by using the method of quantitative geographic analysis and ArcGIS 10.5 software. The analysis results indicate that the grrotto temples (including cliff statues) in Henan Province tend to have a cohesive distribution, with uneven regional distribution, mainly concentrated in the western and northern regions of Henan. The distribution direction and center of the grotto temples (including cliff statues) did not change much during the Northern Dynasties, Sui and Tang dynasties, and Song and Yuan dynasties, mainly distributing in the northwest of Henan. However, the situation underwent significant changes and began to migrate to south of Henan, reflecting the changes the changes in the political and cultural center at that time. The spatiotemporal distribution of the cave temples (including cliff statues) was based on the related topography, river systems, stratigraphic lithology, road traffic, and was direct or indirect influenced by the authorities as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The determination of channel evolutions and the causes is important for reconstructing the evolutionary history of river landforms. This study aimed to elucidate the downstream channel evolution of the Yuan River in Hunan Province, China, during the Qing Dynasty via Landsat 8 satellite image data and relevant literature. The objective was to establish the modes of channel evolution and discuss the significance of historical climate change. The downstream paleochannel of the Yuan River was identified in the Late Ming Dynasty and Early Qing Dynasty (1600–1644 AD), the Kangxi-Qianlong periods of the Qing Dynasty (1661–1796 AD), the Late Qing Dynasty (1840–1912 AD), and the World War II (1939–1945 AD), and three main modes of river evolution were determined. Using remote sensing data and the ancient literature, the evolution characteristics of the paleochannel in the Lower Yuan River were analyzed and its distribution across historical periods was comprehensively revealed. The findings reveal a strong correlation between channel evolution, flood events, and climate change. Numerous flood events that occurred from the Late Qing Dynasty to the World War II caused a high rate of channel evolution, demonstrating the combined effects of climate change and human activities. These findings will help adopt robust and resilient hydrological management methods in the future of a changing climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We paint a detailed picture of whether the trade-off between human capital and fertility decisions was shaped in a pre-industrial society during the Qing dynasty. Using data from the China Multi-Generational Panel Dataset-Liaoning (CMGPD-LN), we investigate 16,328 adult males born between 1760 and 1880 in Northeast China. We control for birth-order effects and for a rich set of individual-, parental-, household-, and village-level characteristics in regression analyses on individuals from different household categories (elite vs. non-elite households). Our findings suggest that sibship size, as instrumented by twins at last birth, starts to have a substantial negative effect on the probability of receiving an education, indicating the emergence of a child quantity-quality trade-off for large parts of the population belonging to the Eight Banner System in Liaoning around the mid-Qing dynasty. Our results provide supportive evidence for the unified growth theory, showing that the decreased fertility rates in pre-transition China could be a result of rational behaviors perpetuated by households in response to higher educational returns and accessibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, X-ray microtomography, scanning electron microscopy - energy dispersive spectroscopy, second harmonic generation imaging microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffractometry were combined for the scientific examination of the surface treatment techniques and degradation characteristics of hemp textiles from six mid-Qing thangkas. The results showed that kaolinite was added as a filler in the production of the canvas, and the fiber morphology and molecular structure of the six hemp thangka textiles were disparate from those of fresh hemp. Specifically, the canvas fiber surfaces were rough, with twisting, deformation, fracture, and decreased cellulose crystallinity indexes. Those results indicated that all six thangkas had undergone significant degradation, which was relatively severe in samples TK16 and TK18. By complimentary evidence derived from the above analyses, the information on the production techniques and degradation degrees of this group of precious thangkas were obtained, thus enabling the accurate assessment of the preservation status of the thangkas and providing a scientific basis for its conservation and restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A composite structure consisting of cotton fabric and iron sheet was widely used in Qing Dynasty armor. Due to iron sheet corroding easily, the surfaces of cotton fabric were covered with numerous rust compounds, which has a significant negative impact on the relics. In this paper, by taking Qing Dynasty armor relics as the research object, the cleaning process was reported for cotton fabrics stained with corrosion products. Using an orthogonal experiment, rust stained model samples were used to explore a specialized and efficient cleaning process. Results show that the cleaning reagents, including ascorbic acid (mass fraction 10.0 g/L), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt (EDTA-2Na, mass fraction 10.0 g/L), and the surfactant composed of 70% rhamnolipid and 30% alkyl glycoside (mass fraction 8.0 g/L), could fully exert a synergistic effect. After treatment, the color difference (ΔE) value between the cleaned sample and the unstained sample is only 3.81. A series of comprehensive experimental results demonstrate that the cleaning procedure is effective and safe. There are almost no rust compounds and cleaning reagent residues, and no damage to cotton fiber. The reported wet cleaning process, aided by soft bristle brush, achieved good cleaning results, indicating that the process can be used to clean rust stain pollutants in Qing dynasty cotton armor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ecological environment of the Tibetan Plateau, known as the "Third Pole of the Earth", is extremely sensitive and fragile. With rapid societal development, environmental problems on the Tibetan Plateau have become prominent, as it is downwind of the emission sources from densely populated areas in the Middle East and South Asia, and the plateau has become one of the regions significantly affected by transboundary pollutant transmission (including black carbon, BC). The Tibetan Plateau has a long history of life and religious sacrifices, including aromatic plant-burning, which were recorded in the geologic record; therefore, BC can be used as a potential indicator to study the changes in religious activities. In this study, BC analysis was carried out based on the plausible dating framework tested by the AMS 14C and 137Cs methods on successive sediment cores from Lake Dalzong, an alpine lake in the Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, northeast of the Tibetan Plateau. It was found that the BC in the lake sediments mainly accumulated through proximity wet deposition, and its content changes reflected the prevalence of surrounding religious activities. The study results indicate that the area of Lake Dalzong has experienced three periods of enhanced religious activities in the last millennium: 1490–1565 CE (mid-Ming Dynasty), 1810–1890 CE (late Qing Dynasty), and 1920 CE to the present (since the founding of the Republic of China), and the increase in religious activities on this centennial time scale is a response to concurrent social development. This study is the first to extract information on the variation in religious activities from lake sediments on the Tibetan Plateau, which will help advance the study of the historical context of the Anthropocene on the Tibetan Plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most recent studies on Meiyu over the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (MLRYR) have focused on its interannual variability or the mechanism of certain abnormal events. The influence and physical mechanism of solar radiation intensity on the interdecadal frequency of strong Meiyu events over the MLRYR during historical periods were investigated using reconstructed precipitation data, reconstructed solar radiation data, and model simulation data. First, according to the solar radiation intensity, the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1470–1850) were divided into three periods of strong solar radiation and three periods of weak solar radiation. It was found that during the periods of strong solar radiation, the frequency of strong Meiyu events was significantly higher than that during the periods of weak solar radiation in the reconstructed precipitation data and model simulations. Mechanism analyses show that during the periods of strong solar radiation, the Western Pacific Subtropical High (WPSH) is stronger, and the blocking highs over the middle-high-latitudes are also stronger, which is conducive to the continuous convergence of the southward cold air and the northward warm and humid air flow at the MLRYR. Therefore, a circulation spatial pattern conducive to the occurrence of strong Meiyu events is then induced. The probability distributions of precipitation also show that, during periods of strong solar radiation, changes in circulation patterns cause the probability distribution of precipitation to shift significantly to the right, increasing the probability of strong Meiyu events occurring on the right side of the probability distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Karst regions are exceptionally responsive to global change with their harsh natural environment, fragile ecology, and acute human-land conflicts. The reconstruction of cropland spatial pattern in karst areas during the historical period is typical for studying human-land relations in karst areas and has important practical significance for climate study. The ecological environment changes at regional and global scales, primarily to provide essential data and a theoretical basis for studying the inverse evolution of rock desertification in karst areas. Guizhou province, a typical karst area, was selected as the research area in 1820. Based on the correction of historical population data and cropland data, a reconstruction model of cropland spatial pattern in karst areas during the historical period was constructed by selecting factors such as elevation, slope, soil types, organic matter content, climatic productivity potential, distance to river and distance from settlements to reconstruct the spatial pattern distribution of cropland in 1820 of Guizhou. The results show that the data on cropland recorded in Guizhou during the Qing dynasty is too low, mainly due to Yin-Ni and the policy of Tu-Di-Mian-Ke. In 1820, the total area of revised cropland in Guizhou was 1,851,792 hm2, with the highest proportion of 14.32% in Dading Fu and the lowest in Songtao Ting at 1.6%. Only 30% of the grid in Guizhou has a cropland distribution. It is mainly concentrated in the central part of Qianzhong District (Anshun and Guiyang Fu), the southern part of Qianbei District (Pingyue Fu and southern Zunyi Fu), the western part of Qiandongnan District, the central and eastern parts of the Qiandongbei District. The overall average reclamation rate of land in Guizhou is 10.93%, the highest reclamation intensity in Qianzhong District, with 8.5% of grids ≥ 50%, and the smallest in Qianxinan District, with only 1.65% of grids ≥ 50%. The analysis is validated by comparing the reconstruction model and the reconstruction results. It can be seen that the reconstruction model and research results of this paper can more objectively reflect the distribution of cropland in karst areas during the historical period, and the reconstruction model is suitable for karst areas with low productivity levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keywords: Yuan; Name and identity; Monkeys in human culture; François' langurs Trachypithecus francoisi; Gibbons EN Yuan Name and identity Monkeys in human culture François' langurs Trachypithecus francoisi Gibbons 175 177 3 02/17/23 20230201 NES 230201 Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-022-00340-9. Yuan, Name and identity, Monkeys in human culture, François' langurs Trachypithecus francoisi, Gibbons In contrast, there is ample evidence to suggest that the original identity of Yuan is a François' langur instead of a gibbon (Niu I et al. i , [3]). [Extracted from the article]

Murals of Cave 256, Mogao Grottoes consist of several layers, with the outermost layer overlays all others. The bottom layer was painted in the five dynasties. The outermost layer was mural of the Song Dynasty. Statues were repainted in the Qing Dynasty. We found that different blue pigments are used in multilayer murals which reflects the social development at that time to a certain extent. In order to know the type of blue pigments, technology such as X-ray diffraction, microscopic FTIR spectroscopy and polarizing microscope were used for analysis of trace samples based on non-destructive research through the portable X-ray fluorescence. As a result, we know that Lazurite was used as blue pigment in murals of the Five Dynasties and Azurite was used in the Song Dynasty. Smalt used in statues of the Qing Dynasty was first discovered in Mogao Grottoes. It can be inferred from the discovery of smalt that statues of the Qing Dynasty in Cave 256 were repainted in the first half of the nineteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Murals of Cave 256, Mogao Grottoes consist of several layers, with the outermost layer overlays all others. The bottom layer was painted in the five dynasties. The outermost layer was mural of the Song Dynasty. Statues were repainted in the Qing Dynasty. We found that different blue pigments are used in multilayer murals which reflects the social development at that time to a certain extent. In order to know the type of blue pigments, technology such as X-ray diffraction, microscopic FTIR spectroscopy and polarizing microscope were used for analysis of trace samples based on non-destructive research through the portable X-ray fluorescence. As a result, we know that Lazurite was used as blue pigment in murals of the Five Dynasties and Azurite was used in the Song Dynasty. Smalt used in statues of the Qing Dynasty was first discovered in Mogao Grottoes. It can be inferred from the discovery of smalt that statues of the Qing Dynasty in Cave 256 were repainted in the first half of the nineteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Murals of Cave 256, Mogao Grottoes consist of several layers, with the outermost layer overlays all others. The bottom layer was painted in the five dynasties. The outermost layer was mural of the Song Dynasty. Statues were repainted in the Qing Dynasty. We found that different blue pigments are used in multilayer murals which reflects the social development at that time to a certain extent. In order to know the type of blue pigments, technology such as X-ray diffraction, microscopic FTIR spectroscopy and polarizing microscope were used for analysis of trace samples based on non-destructive research through the portable X-ray fluorescence. As a result, we know that Lazurite was used as blue pigment in murals of the Five Dynasties and Azurite was used in the Song Dynasty. Smalt used in statues of the Qing Dynasty was first discovered in Mogao Grottoes. It can be inferred from the discovery of smalt that statues of the Qing Dynasty in Cave 256 were repainted in the first half of the nineteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the structures and possibilities of love, friendship, and fraternity in a sexual relationship between men in the late imperial Chinese zhiguai tale (strange tale) Huang Jiulang. Huang Jiulang is a short fictional supernatural story by Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) writer Pu Songling (1640–1715) about a homosexual love affair that takes place between mock brothers, a fox spirit Huang Jiulang and a human He Shican, first published c.1740 in the third volume of Pu's zhiguai tale collection Liaozhai Zhiyi (Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio). In China there is a long tradition of people who were not blood related but shared a fraternal bond, for instance by becoming sworn brothers or sisters due to their shared interests, ambitions, or responsibilities. In terms of the wulun (five Confucian interpersonal relationships) brotherhood is superior to friendship. By converting friendship into this mock kinship of brotherhood, the relationship was able to become both more enduring and more affectionate than ordinary friendship. In other words, taking such an oath allowed people to establish a non-kinship family bond. In Huang Jiulang, however, Pu Songling uses the relationship between a human and a fox figure to demonstrate that mock brotherhood could in fact be quite complex by showing the existence of slippages between homosociality and homosexuality, i.e., male friendship, fraternity, sex, and romantic love in late imperial China. In this article, we argue that for Pu Songling, when mock brotherhood became caught up with erotic relations, it signaled a crisis in Confucian masculinity and consequently created a disciplinary model that restricted masculinity to the familial domain and marriage. This takes place within a late imperial Chinese context where marriage was of the gravest importance to both families and society, as well as being important for the cultivation of virtue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The geographical environment of Yunnan Province in China and Han migration during the Ming Dynasty contributed to the development of the Biantun culture. Biantun toponyms (BTT) record the integration process between the Central Plains and native Yunnan cultures. The GIS analysis method of toponyms was used in this study to reproduce the settlement characteristics of BTT and the spatial development of the Biantun culture in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In addition, we have developed a toponymical landscape index to represent the degree of spatial integration between the BTT and ethnic minority toponyms in Yunnan and explore the spatial characteristics of the integration of Han immigrants and local ethnic minorities. The results show that the spatial distribution of the BTT is consistent with the sites selection of the Tuntian (屯田) in Yunnan during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and the centroids of BTT spread to outskirts and intermontane area from central towns. In the Dali, Kunming, Qujing and other regions, the distribution characteristics of the integrated of BTT and ethnic minority toponyms reflect a higher degree of Sinicization in the central urban areas. Exploring the evolution of Biantun cultural development through the spatial characteristics of toponymical landscapes can help adjust policies for the development and protection of Biantun cultural resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decoration with feathers is a universal phenomenon in human history. Objects decorated with feathers were regarded as fine artworks and hence were enormously prized. In ancient China, dotting a surface with blue kingfisher feathers was a famous, complex and delicate decoration technique called diancui. Although various ancient diancui artworks appear in many museums around the world and researchers have realized significant results in studies of the history, technique and conservation of diancui, some key historical details are still not clear. In this research performed during restoration, an important object from the Palace Museum, the "Feather Decoration Hanging Screen with Birds and Flowers Pattern", was analyzed by various scientific technologies. This object is a Chinese imperial artwork of the Qing dynasty (seventeenth to eighteenth century) decorated with kingfisher feathers and the feathers of several other birds, and it represents the highest level of this period. As a typical and valuable case, the results provide important clues for solving questions arising from related academic fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Guangzhou Tongcao paintings in Qing Dynasty of China witnessed the exchange of economy, culture, art and technology between China and foreign countries, which were an important export product in historical China. In this paper, by using Optical Stereo Microscope, Polarized Light Microscope, Scanning Electron Microscope attached Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy and micro confocal laser Raman Spectroscope, a Qing Dynasty Tongcao painting with the subject of family life of an official's female relative was analyzed. Our study revealed that: (1) the hexagonal cell morphology which was easily observed in the Tongcao pith could contain more pigments and increase the stereo sense of painting, and the cell of historical Tongcao pith had started to degrade, which indicated an urgent requirement on conservation of Tongcao paintings; (2) alum was needed as the fixing agent in the preparation of pigments and the painting process; (3) both the China domestic pigments including red lead, calcite, lead white, carbon black and gamboge, and the synthetic pigments imported from Europe (synthetic ultramarine, prussian blue and emerald green) were applied in this painting, which reflected the bi-directional communication of culture and technology between China and western world. Meanwhile, the existence of synthetic ultramarine, prussian blue and emerald green was helpful to further identify the production date of this painting was late Qing Dynasty, mainly the mid-late 19th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, in order to analyze the materials and techniques used for the production of the inscribed plaques, multi-analytical scientific approach, including optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), micro-attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (μ-ATR-FTIR), and micro-Raman spectroscopy (μ-Raman), were used to explore the materials and techniques utilized to create the "Chun Rong Xuan Mao" birthday inscribed plaque of the Qing Dynasty. The results showed that the plaque was made of cypress wood and decorative parts consisting of the surface lacquer layers, plaster lacquer layers and primer lacquer layers. Chinese lacquer was the principal material used in the surface lacquer layers; gypsum and Chinese lacquer were the materials used in the plaster lacquer layers; and the primer lacquer layers was composed of Chinese lacquer, calcite, and mixed pigments by cinnabar and minium. The surface lacquer layers of the inscribed plaque were lacquered black. Gypsum lacquer plaster has been commonly used in the ground layer of lacquerware in modern history. This study confirmed the existence of technology to make lacquerware using gypsum lacquer plaster in the Bashu area during the late Qing Dynasty. Moreover, this study not only provides new findings regarding the traditional production of inscribed plaques and offers technical support for the protection and restoration of such plaques but also has great significance to exploring the history of ancient techniques of lacquering and decorating lacquerware. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper is focused on the two most outstanding figures among the Jesuit missionaries in seventeenth-century China: Johann Adam Schall von Bell and Ferdinand Verbiest. Schall aimed to introduce the telescope into Chinese astronomy, which was traditionally based on naked-eye observation and calculation. With the advent of the Qing dynasty, he became head of the Mathematical Board and director of the Imperial Observatory. Verbiest was called upon in 1660 to assist Schall in his project of reforming the Chinese traditional calendar. The political situation changed in 1661, with the Empire ruled by a regency hostile to the Jesuits, as were most of the mandarins at the observatory. This was the difficult context of the famous dispute between Yang Guangxian, Wu Mingxuan, and the two Jesuit mathematicians to compare the merits of Western and Chinese astronomy, which lasted from 1664 to 1669. What happened was more than a scientific contest and a court conspiracy: it was a cultural confrontation between the Jesuits and the traditionalist side of the ruling elite, which regarded the Europeans and their increasing influence as a threat for the Empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on historical records of extreme climate events and population densities in Gansu and Shaanxi, and information on climate change, populations, new cultivated cropland, and administrative system reform in Xinjiang, this study explores the interaction between climate change, migration, and regional administrative reform in the middle Qing Dynasty. The results showed that the surge in population migration from Gansu and Shaanxi to Xinjiang during 1760-1820 was caused by extreme climate events (droughts and floods) and population pressure in Gansu and Shaanxi. During 1760-1880, the climate in Xinjiang was unusually cold and humid, which was highly conducive to abundant regional water resources. This provided favorable conditions for farmland irrigation and further promoted agricultural cultivation, population growth, and town development within this region. Additionally, the interactions between climate change and the above-mentioned social factors, which acted as driving forces, spurred the reform in the administrative system of Xinjiang whereby the military administration system was transformed to a province administration system. Through this reform, the Qing government managed to restore peace and stability in Xinjiang. This study contributes to a better understanding of climate-related population migration and enhances our knowledge of the impact-response chain between climate change, ancient social developments, and political coping strategies, especially in regional administrative reform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent discussions on the nature and problems of Chinese state legitimacy have drawn attention to the multidimensionality of contributing factors and threats to this legitimacy. This article shifts the focus of the discussion on legitimacy to the process of Chinese state legitimation and develops answers to the question of how state legitimation strategies from the late-Qing period through the early 21st century handled an adherence both to traditional Chinese political-cultural rules of paternalistic governance and legitimation claims grounded in Western concepts of the nation-state and citizenship. The article focuses on and draws upon discussions of national citizenship, religion, and superstition in state policy directives on moral-political education from the Qing period to the Hu Jintao administration to elaborate on the ways concepts of citizenship and religiosity have been integrated with state concern for people's spiritual livelihood, fidelity to orthodoxies of good governance, concern for people's material livelihood, attentiveness to people's views, and encouragement of people fulfilling their responsibilities. It finds that religiosity is closely linked with conceptions of orthodoxy and heterodoxy and that these links create contradictions with the relationship between religiosity, national development, and citizenship rights. The article concludes by suggesting that the existence of these contradictions is assuaged by the perspective that states' legitimation objectives are met by continually adhering to the broader character of paternalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The beiwusheng huiguan ('Meeting hall of the Five Northern Dynasties') is a building complex from the Qing dynasty (1636-1912 ad) located in Wafangdian, near Ziyang, in the south of the Chinese Province of Shaanxi. Two of the preserved halls are richly decorated with wall paintings dated probably in 1848 ad and representing scenes of the 'Romance of the Three Kingdoms' and Confucian moral tales. They are a rare example of well-preserved mural paintings of high artistic value inside civil buildings. The aims of this paper are the chemical characterization and localization of organic materials used as binders and colorants in the wall paintings. A multi-analytical approach, consisting in the combined use of gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric techniques (GC/MS and Py-GC/MS) and high-pressure liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD), was chosen for these purposes. Proteinaceous materials (animal glue and egg), saccharide material (fruit tree gum) and a siccative oil were identified in different paint layers supplying invaluable information about the painting technique used. Moreover, the analyses of organic dyes allowed identifying indigo and gallic acid in more than one sample adding fundamental information about Chinese artists' techniques in mural paintings, missing from the previous studies. To shed light on the gilding technique, the distribution of the painting materials was achieved by means of synchrotron radiation Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (SR micro-FTIR) and X-ray fluorescence (SR micro-XRF). The results obtained from the multi-analytical approach enabled us to determine the organic materials both binders and organic colorants used by Chinese artisans, highlighting the high technical level achieved in nineteenth century. The binding media and the organic colorants identified, as well as their distribution, allowed the discussion on the painting technique used by the artists of the Qing dynasty giving information for the first time about the decoration of Chinese civil buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The House of Aisin Gioro is the imperial family of the last dynasty in Chinese history-Qing dynasty (1644-1911). The Aisin Gioro family originated from Jurchen tribes and founded the Manchu people before they conquered China. By investigating the Y chromosomal short tandem repeats (STRs) of seven modern male individuals who claim to belong to the Aisin Gioro family (three of which have full records of pedigree), we found that three of them (two of which having full pedigree, whose most recent common ancestor is Nurgaci) showed very close relationship (1-2 steps of differences in 17 STRs) and possessed a rare haplotype. We therefore conclude that this haplotype is the Y chromosome of the House of Aisin Gioro. Further tests of single-nucleotide polymorphisms indicate that they belong to haplogroup C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483), although their Y-STR results indicate that they are not a part of the 'star cluster' (once linked to Genghis Khan), which belongs to the same haplogroup. This study forms the base for the pedigree research of the imperial family of Qing dynasty by means of genetics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shen Jiaben, the late Qing scholar-bureaucrat, was made into a hero by the times during the Xin Zheng period which was a reaction to the failed 103-Days Reform in 1898 characterized by utopianism. Shen's experience within the bureaucracy and his pragmatic approach in reforms were needed by the Qing rulers at that time. Shen was gradually forgotten after the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the repeated failures of the Chinese attempts to achieve constitutionalism. He was rediscovered in the last two decades among mainland China scholars, because his piece by piece approach in reforming the legal system without grand theories happened to be in agreement with the atmosphere among Chinese scholars, who after the failure of the 1989 Tiananmen Event, had gradually developed a consensus to reform China's political system piece by piece, not through grand theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the mid-19th century, China began to experience drastic changes such as bureaucratic corruption, popular insurgence, the waning of the central imperial power, and the decay of the Grand Canal, which had been the lifeline for the whole empire during the late imperial period. The abolition of grain tribute shipping, the withdrawal of the canal and canal-related hydraulic system, and then the disruption of the canal channel in the north resulted in the decline of most urban centers along the canal’s course, including Jining, a great canal metropolis in southwestern Shandong province. Furthermore, the overwhelming intrusion of Western capitalist-dominated globalization dramatically turned these interior urban centers into hinterlands. Jining found itself downgraded to a peripheral status but did not decline like most northern cities and areas. This paper examines the extraordinary undertakings by Jining’s powerful and open-minded elites who largely constrained the locality’s decline and vigorously worked towards its modernization in the last decades of the Qing. This local story illustrates an example of a partially successful Western urban transformation in inland China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tie luo (affixed hanging) was an expressive form of traditional Chinese calligraphy or paintings, and popular in the imperial palaces for interior decorations in Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 C.E.). A piece of calligraphic tie luo, written by an eminent calligrapher Gu Gao (1763-1832 C.E.), was restored recently in the Palace Museum, Beijing, China. The paper with pigment coating specially made for this calligraphic piece was named as fenjian. This article presented results from materials identification prior to the restoration. Multianalysis with scientific approaches revealed how tie luo was manufactured. It could be concluded that the investigated tie luo used a paper made from bast fibers of mulberry trees. And the decorative ground layer for the piece was also studied, which indicated that a type of organic red pigments were used for the masterpiece. White lead was considered as the main pigment, mixed with a red dye extracted from sappanwood. Meanwhile, animal glue, drying oils and beeswax were confirmed as the organic binding media. In dye analysis, protosappanin B and brazilin as well as brazilein were identified, which implied that sappanwood was used for the organic manufacture of pigments. In addition, both Nowik type A and C were found in the research, which were characteristic of sappanwood for identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]