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Aims/hypothesis: Aggregation of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) as islet amyloid is associated with increased beta cell apoptosis and reduced beta cell mass in type 2 diabetes. Islet amyloid formation induces oxidative stress, which contributes to beta cell apoptosis. The cJUN N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway is a critical mediator of beta cell apoptosis in response to stress stimuli including oxidative stress and exogenous application of hIAPP. We determined whether amyloid formation by endogenous hIAPP mediates beta cell apoptosis through JNK activation and downstream signalling pathways. Methods: h IAPP transgenic and non-transgenic mouse islets were cultured for up to 144 h in 16.7 mmol/l glucose to induce islet amyloid in the presence or absence of the amyloid inhibitor Congo Red or a cell-permeable JNK inhibitor. Amyloid, beta cell apoptosis, JNK signalling and activation of downstream targets in the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways were measured. Results: JNK activation occurred with islet amyloid formation in h IAPP transgenic islets after 48 and 144 h in culture. Neither high glucose nor the h IAPP transgene alone was sufficient to activate JNK independent of islet amyloid. Inhibition of islet amyloid formation with Congo Red reduced beta cell apoptosis and partially decreased JNK activation. JNK inhibitor treatment reduced beta cell apoptosis without affecting islet amyloid. Islet amyloid increased mRNA levels of markers of the extrinsic ( Fas, Fadd) and intrinsic ( Bim [also known as Bcl2l11]) apoptotic pathways, caspase 3 and the anti-apoptotic molecule Bclxl (also known as Bcl2l1) in a JNK-dependent manner. Conclusions/interpretation: Islet amyloid formation induces JNK activation, which upregulates predominantly pro-apoptotic signals in both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, resulting in beta cell apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ims/hypothesis: In type 2 diabetes, aggregation of islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) into amyloid is associated with beta cell loss. As IAPP is co-secreted with insulin, we hypothesised that IAPP secretion is necessary for amyloid formation and that treatments that increase insulin (and IAPP) secretion would thereby increase amyloid formation and toxicity. We also hypothesised that the unique properties of the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist exendin-4 to maintain or increase beta cell mass would offset the amyloid-induced toxicity. Methods: Islets from amyloid-forming human IAPP transgenic and control non-transgenic mice were cultured for 48 h in 16.7 mmol/l glucose alone (control) or with exendin-4, potassium chloride (KCl), diazoxide or somatostatin. Human IAPP and insulin release, amyloid deposition, beta cell area/islet area, apoptosis and AKT phosphorylation levels were determined. Results: In control human IAPP transgenic islets, amyloid formation was associated with increased beta cell apoptosis and beta cell loss. Increasing human IAPP release with exendin-4 or KCl increased amyloid deposition. However, while KCl further increased beta cell apoptosis and beta cell loss, exendin-4 did not. Conversely, decreasing human IAPP release with diazoxide or somatostatin limited amyloid formation and its toxic effects. Treatment with exendin-4 was associated with an increase in AKT phosphorylation compared with control and KCl-treated islets. Conclusions/interpretation: IAPP release is necessary for islet amyloid formation and its toxic effects. Thus, use of insulin secretagogues to treat type 2 diabetes may result in increased islet amyloidogenesis and beta cell death. However, the AKT-associated anti-apoptotic effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists such as exendin-4 may limit the toxic effects of increased islet amyloid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supraphysiological levels of the amyloidogenic peptide human islet amyloid polypeptide have been associated with beta cell endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. However, in human type 2 diabetes, levels of human IAPP are equivalent or decreased relative to matched controls. Thus, we sought to investigate whether ER stress is induced during amyloidogenesis at physiological levels of human IAPP. Islets from human IAPP transgenic mice that develop amyloid, and non-transgenic mice that do not, were cultured for up to 7 days in 11.1, 16.7 and 33.3 mmol/l glucose. Pancreases from human IAPP transgenic and non-transgenic mice and humans with or without type 2 diabetes were also evaluated. Amyloid formation was determined histologically. ER stress was determined in islets by quantifying mRNA levels of Bip, Atf4 and Chop (also known as Ddit3) and alternate splicing of Xbp1 mRNA, or in pancreases by immunostaining for immunoglobulin heavy chain-binding protein (BIP), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) and X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1). Amyloid formation in human IAPP transgenic islets was associated with reduced beta cell area in a glucose- and time-dependent manner. However, amyloid formation was not associated with significant increases in expression of ER stress markers under any culture condition. Thapsigargin treatment, a positive control, did result in significant ER stress. Amyloid formation in vivo in pancreas samples from human IAPP transgenic mice or humans was not associated with upregulation of ER stress markers. Our data suggest that ER stress is not an obligatory pathway mediating the toxic effects of amyloid formation at physiological levels of human IAPP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Islet amyloid in type 2 diabetes contributes to loss of beta cell mass and function. Since islets are susceptible to oxidative stress-induced toxicity, we sought to determine whether islet amyloid formation is associated with induction of oxidative stress. Human islet amyloid polypeptide transgenic and non-transgenic mouse islets were cultured for 48 or 144 h with or without the antioxidant N-acetyl- l-cysteine (NAC) or the amyloid inhibitor Congo Red. Amyloid deposition, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, beta cell apoptosis, and insulin secretion, content and mRNA were measured. After 48 h, amyloid deposition was associated with increased ROS levels and increased beta cell apoptosis, but no change in insulin secretion, content or mRNA levels. Antioxidant treatment prevented the rise in ROS, but did not prevent amyloid formation or beta cell apoptosis. In contrast, inhibition of amyloid formation prevented the induction of oxidative stress and beta cell apoptosis. After 144 h, amyloid deposition was further increased and was associated with increased ROS levels, increased beta cell apoptosis and decreased insulin content. At this time-point, antioxidant treatment and inhibition of amyloid formation were effective in reducing ROS levels, amyloid formation and beta cell apoptosis. Inhibition of amyloid formation also increased insulin content. Islet amyloid formation induces oxidative stress, which in the short term does not mediate beta cell apoptosis, but in the longer term may feed back to further exacerbate amyloid formation and contribute to beta cell apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Islet transplantation is a potential cure for diabetes; however, rates of graft failure remain high. The aim of the present study was to determine whether amyloid deposition is associated with reduced beta cell volume in islet grafts and the recurrence of hyperglycaemia following islet transplantation. We transplanted a streptozotocin-induced mouse model of diabetes with 100 islets from human IAPP (which encodes islet amyloid polypeptide) transgenic mice that have the propensity to form islet amyloid ( n = 8–12) or from non-transgenic mice that do not develop amyloid ( n = 6–10) in sets of studies that lasted 1 or 6 weeks. Plasma glucose levels before and for 1 week after transplantation were similar in mice that received transgenic or non-transgenic islets, and at that time amyloid was detected in all transgenic grafts and, as expected, in none of the non-transgenic grafts. However, over the 6 weeks following transplantation, plasma glucose levels increased in transgenic but remained stable in non-transgenic islet graft recipients ( p < 0.05). At 6 weeks, amyloid was present in 92% of the transgenic grafts and in none of the non-transgenic grafts. Beta cell volume was reduced by 30% ( p < 0.05), beta cell apoptosis was twofold higher ( p < 0.05), and beta cell replication was reduced by 50% ( p < 0.001) in transgenic vs non-transgenic grafts. In summary, amyloid deposition in islet grafts occurs prior to the recurrence of hyperglycaemia and its accumulation over time is associated with beta cell loss. Islet amyloid formation may explain, in part, the non-immune loss of beta cells and recurrence of hyperglycaemia following clinical islet transplantation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge of the within-subject variability of a parameter is required to properly design and calculate sample sizes for longitudinal studies. We sought to determine the day-to-day variability of measures of beta cell function derived from an OGTT. Thirty-seven adults (13 with normal glucose tolerance, ten with impaired glucose tolerance, 14 with type 2 diabetes) underwent a standard 2 h 75 g OGTT on two separate days (median time between tests, 7 days; range, 5–14). From these data, the reproducibility of several indices of beta cell function were determined: insulinogenic index (ΔI0–30/ΔG0–30), early C-peptide response (ΔCP0–30/ΔG0–30), incremental AUC insulin to glucose response (incAUCins/incAUCglu), integrated insulin secretion response from 0 to 120 min (IS/Glu0–120) and indices of beta cell function derived from a mathematical model. Within-subject variability for ΔI0–30/ΔG0–30 (CV 57.1%) was higher than ΔCP0–30/ΔG0–30 (CV 34.7%). Measures integrated over the full 120 min of the OGTT, incAUCins/incAUCglu (CV 24.9%) and IS/Glu0–120 (CV 17.4%), demonstrated less variability. The mathematical model-derived measures of beta cell glucose sensitivity (CV 20.3%) and potentiation (CV 33.0%) showed moderate variability. The impact of the different measures’ variability on sample size (30% change from baseline) is demonstrated by calculated sample sizes of 89 for ΔI0–30/ΔG0–30, 37 for ΔCP0–30/ΔG0–30, 21 for incAUCins/incAUCglu and 11 for IS/Glu0–120. Some OGTT-derived indices of beta cell function, in particular the insulinogenic index, demonstrate high within-subject variability. Integrated measures that utilise multiple time points and measures that use C-peptide show less variability and may lead to a reduced sample size requirement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is produced by the F-cells of the pancreas, and its plasma concentration has been used as a marker of parasympathetic activity. Recent work in rodents suggests that there is both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of white adipose tissue and that parasympathetic activity is anabolic resulting in lipid accumulation. We have examined whether in humans increased PP levels are associated with increased intra-abdominal fat (IAF), and thereby insulin resistance. We measured PP levels in 177 non-diabetic subjects (75 male/102 female; age 32–75 years) 3 min after an i.v. glucose bolus during a frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test. IAF and s.c. fat (SCF) areas were measured by CT scan. The insulin sensitivity index ( S I) was quantified using Bergman’s minimal model. PP levels were higher in men than in women (96.2 ± 72.2 vs 76.1 ± 55.0 pg/ml, mean ± SD, p = 0.037), as was IAF area (124.7 ± 67.4 vs 83.0 ± 57.7 cm2, p < 0.001). While PP levels were significantly associated with IAF ( r = 0.16, p = 0.031), WHR ( r = 0.30, p < 0.001) and age ( r = 0.37, p < 0.01), they were not associated with SCF ( r = 0.02, p = 0.829). The association between PP and IAF was not independent of age and/or sex. S I was negatively associated with PP levels ( r = −0.17, p = 0.026) and IAF area ( r = −0.65, p < 0.001). The association between S I and PP disappeared after adjusting for IAF area, indicating that S I was not a major determinant of PP levels. In humans, age and sex may modulate the association between plasma PP level and IAF area, suggesting that they may be determinants of parasympathetic activity and thus IAF accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]