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Mirror game (MG) is an exercise in which participants imitate each other. Our study explored its spontaneous behavioral consequences after performance. In a baseline (BL) phase, two participants performed a joint Simon task. Then, they performed a lure task during which we measured the interpersonal distance they spontaneously adopted. The BL phase was followed by two phases (in counterbalanced order). The MG phase started with a MG, before a procedure like the BL phase. The individual movement (IM) phase started with movements performed alone before a procedure like the BL phase. Interpersonal distance analysis suggested that MG enhanced spontaneous approach toward the partner, whereas IM induced spontaneous avoidance. Moreover, the joint Simon effect (JSE) tended to be smaller after IM, suggesting a decreasing inclination to integrate the partner's response in one's own action plan. Furthermore, in IM phase, JSE decreased as interpersonal distance increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interpersonal Distance (IPD) is defined as the physical distance that individuals maintain between themselves and others during social interactions. While literature has extensively focused on this everyday social behavior, how IPD changes throughout the lifespan remains an open question. In this study, 864 participants, aged 3–89 years, performed the Stop Distance Paradigm in their real-life environments, and we measured the distance they kept from both familiar and unfamiliar others during social interactions. We found that IPD not only differs based on the identity of the other person (familiar versus unfamiliar) but critically declines as a function of age, following two distinct non-linear trends for familiar and unfamiliar others. Moreover, behavioral variability also undergoes a lifetime development, with IPD becoming more stable as age increases. Overall, the present study suggests that IPD is a complex and acquired behavior that changes throughout the lifespan and varies according to individual and situational variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During times of distress, the attachment system stimulates individuals to seek reassurance through closeness. Previous research suggests that attachment avoidance, but not attachment anxiety, is associated with larger preferred and estimated interpersonal distance. Although several studies exist investigating interpersonal distance during the COVID-19 pandemic, no research to date included the association with attachment style. This experimental study adds to previous research by examining the association between attachment styles and interpersonal distance during a genuine (social) threat, i.e., the COVID-19 pandemic, also examining the role of the intimacy level of the relationship with another person and who was in control of the approaching movement. A sample of 168 Dutch participants (aged 18–71 years) completed questionnaires and performed a computerized task to measure interpersonal distance estimations and distancing preferences during the COVID-19 pandemic with its social distancing measures. A computerized adaptation of the distance-closeness paradigm with two conditions (being approached and approaching) was used. Participants were asked to assess 6 scenarios, varying in the level of intimacy of the relationship, both from a current and retrospective pre-pandemic perspective. As expected, attachment avoidance was associated with larger interpersonal distance estimations and preferences. Contrary to our hypotheses, we found no associations for attachment anxiety, even though a real threat was present. Participants preferred greater distances in the being approached condition. Furthermore, preferred distances were larger during the pandemic than they were imagined pre-pandemic. The results of this study further support the previously found associations between attachment avoidance and interpersonal distancing behavior. Regarding attachment anxiety, further research could explore potential conflicting interests between suppressed self-needs for interpersonal closeness and presumed needs of others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since COVID-19 is easily transmitted among people in close physical proximity, the focus of epidemiological policy during the COVID-19 crisis included major restrictions on interpersonal distance. However, the way in which distance restrictions affected spatial perception is unclear. In the current study, we examined interpersonal distance preferences and perceptions at three time points: pre-pandemic, early post-pandemic, and late post-pandemic. The results indicate that following the pandemic outbreak, people perceived others as farther away than they actually were, suggesting that the distance restrictions were associated with an enlargement of perceived interpersonal distance. Interestingly, however, people maintained the same distance from one another as before the outbreak, indicating no change in actual distance behavior due to the risk of infection. These findings suggest that COVID-19 was associated with a change in the way distance is perceived, while in practice, people maintain the same distance as before. In contrast, COVID-related anxiety predicted both a preference for maintaining a greater distance and a bias toward underestimating perceived distance from others. Thus, individuals who were highly fearful of COVID-19 perceived other people to be closer than they actually were and preferred to maintain a larger distance from them. The results suggest that subjective risk can lead to an increased perception of danger and a subsequent change in behavior. Taken together, even when behaviors should logically change, the decision-making process can be based on distorted perceptions. This insight may be used to predict public compliance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In our daily lives, we spontaneously or passively make various social comparisons. In terms of the abilities that are closely linked to our lives, how interpersonal distance affects outcome evaluation in an ability-based social comparison context is largely unknown. In the current study, we used a 2 interpersonal distance × 2 self-outcome × 2 other-outcome within-participant factorial design to investigate how interpersonal distance affects the processing of accuracy outcomes and monetary reward outcomes in social comparison from a temporal processing perspective (N = 25, Mage = 19.84, 52% female). Event-related potentials (ERPs) were measured while the participants performed a dot estimation task with a friend and with a stranger. Regarding behavioral level, the participants were more satisfied when they received positive outcomes and preferred positive outcomes for the friend over the stranger. Regarding ERP level, the effect of interpersonal distance on the processing of judgment accuracy outcomes in social comparison was reflected in the FRN and P300. Specifically, whether the participants were paired with a friend or a stranger, the FRN was larger for other-incorrect than for other-correct in the self-incorrect condition. Only when a participant was paired with a stranger was the FRN larger for stranger-incorrect than for stranger-correct in the self-correct condition. Additionally, the P300 was larger when the participants received the same outcomes as the strangers. Overall, our findings suggest that interpersonal distance moderates the evaluation of social comparison outcomes. Even in a noncompetitive context, individuals tend to compare themselves to strangers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trustworthiness judgments of faces play an important role in social interactions. Although previous studies indicate facial judgments can be modulated by some additional information (such as behavioral history), few studies have paid attention to the effect of interpersonal distance on trustworthiness judgments of faces. Interpersonal distance is a critical proxy of interpersonal relationship and motivation. The current study aimed to examine whether imagined interpersonal distance with or without a physical distance cue (image size) could modulate facial trustworthiness judgments. In a series of four experiments, the current study shows that faces are judged as more trustworthy as the imagined interpersonal distance increases. More importantly, it is the first to show that imagined interpersonal distance has a larger effect on facial evaluations than does image size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Interpersonal distance (IPD), which reflects the physical space between people, ensures the regulation of social behavior in interaction as part of nonverbal communication. Our research aims to reveal whether there is a difference in personal distance preference between individuals with hearing loss and normal hearing (NH). Methods: Thirty-five adults (26.54 ± 7.05 years) were divided into three groups according to hearing status: hearing aid (HA) users, cochlear implant (CI) users, and NH individuals. The preferred interpersonal distance scale (PIPDS) and a stop distance paradigm were employed for measurements in various environments. Personal space violations were monitored using an electrodermal activity (EDA) wristband. Results: Our findings showed a significant relationship between preferred interpersonal distance (PID) and hearing loss duration (r = 571; p <.01) and a significant difference in PIDs between CI users and NH individuals (p =.025). There was a correlation between PIPDS results and interpersonal distance preference in two outdoor conditions where the experimenter was male. However, there was no correlation between interpersonal distance and EDA results. Conclusions: For the CI group, PIPDS results indicated an increased interpersonal distance preference with the severity of hearing loss, possibly to enhance lip-reading cues and conceal visible hearing aids. Understanding these preferences is essential for effective communication and good interpersonal relationships among individuals with hearing loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The psychological mechanisms that high and low altruists exhibit in different contexts remain unknown. This study examined the underlying mechanisms of the effect of altruistic personality, social observation, and interpersonal distance on prosocial behavior using event-related potentials (ERPs). Participants with high and low altruism were asked to make prosocial or non-prosocial choices toward different interpersonal distances (friends, acquaintances, or strangers) under the (non)observer condition. The electrophysiological responses to the choice stimuli were simultaneously recorded. The behavioral results demonstrated that high altruists had more prosocial choices, and these choices were unaffected by interpersonal distance and social observation. However, low altruists made more prosocial choices toward friends and acquaintances under the observer than nonobserver conditions, whereas their prosocial choices toward strangers showed no difference. The ERP results demonstrated that low altruists showed more negative N2 when the choice stimuli were toward strangers and acquaintances or under the nonobserver condition. Furthermore, low altruists showed larger P3 under the observer than nonobserver conditions when the choice stimuli were toward friends and acquaintances, while this difference was absent when the choice stimuli were toward strangers. However, for high altruists, no effect of interpersonal distance and social observation was observed in N2 and P3. These results suggest that the prosocial behavior of low altruists is mainly driven by reputational incentives, whereas high altruists are primarily motivated by concern about the well-being of others. Our findings provide insights into the prosocial behavior of high and low altruists in different contexts and support the empathy-altruism hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an immersive virtual environment, it was investigated how the perception of body kinetics contributes to social distance behavior when the facial expression and other physical properties of a social interaction partner cannot be perceived. Based on point light displays, both the subject and the social interaction partner were depicted as stick figures, both moving simultaneously in the same space. In addition, the effects of relevant psychological factors of the perceiver on social distance behavior were examined. The results were consistent with those from studies with facial expressions or realistic full-body interactants. A greater distance was maintained from characters with emotionally negative expressions of body kinetics. Stationary objects stimuli, which were also included in the study, were mostly passed closer than neutral agents. However, the results are not entirely clear and require further investigation. Depressive symptom burden and factors mainly related to anxiety and avoidance showed effects on social distance in an IVE. The CID, a test often used to assess the interpersonal distance at which a person is comfortable, correlated with that overt behavior. In summary, the results of the study provide experimental evidence that the perception of body kinetics has a similarly significant influence on the regulation of social distance as, for example, facial affect. Implementing this study in real life would be incredibly complex, if not impossible. It is interesting to see that the comparatively simple method used in this study to create and operate an immersive virtual environment turned out to be suitable for studying at least simple types of social behavior based on body movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We tested the relationships between attachment related anxiety and avoidance and interpersonal distance with significant others (mother, father, close friend, love target), as well as, the childhood self. One hundred seventy four university students (85 male and 89 female; average age was 23.90 years, SD = 4.42; 24 [13.8%] were married) participated in the study. They completed Experiences in Close Relationships-Relationship Structures questionnaire (ECR-RS), followed by a computerized version of the comfortable interpersonal distance (CID) task in both the passive state (when protagonists approached them) and the active state (when they approached targets). We asked participants to determine the point at which they felt uncomfortable (the discomfort point) and the point at which they wanted to stop the protagonist (the stop point). Analyses revealed that: (1) Global avoidance scores predicted individuals' distance to parents, whereas global anxiety scores predicted distance to future love's view and childhood self; (2) As avoidance increased, individuals allowed their parents to intrude more into their personal spaces; (3) Attachment anxiety and avoidance predicted the passive state better than the active state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interpersonal distance (IPD) is a simple social regulation metric which is altered in autism. We performed a stop-distance paradigm to evaluate IPD regulation in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and control groups in a real versus a virtual environment mimicking in detail the real one. We found a bimodal pattern of IPDs only in ASD. Both groups showed high IPD correlations between real and virtual environments, but the significantly larger slope in the control group suggests rescaling, which was absent in ASD. We argue that loss of nuances like non-verbal communication, such as perception of subtle body gestures in the virtual environment, lead to changed regulation of IPD in controls, whilst ASD participants show similar deficits in perceiving such subtle cues in both environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Personal space refers to a protective barrier that we strive to maintain around our body. We examined personal space regulation in young people with Williams syndrome (WS) and their typically developing, chronological age-matched peers using a parent report questionnaire and a stop-distance paradigm. Individuals with WS were reported by their parents to be more likely to violate the personal space of others, and indeed they maintained a shorter interpersonal distance in the stop-distance paradigm. Interestingly, WS individuals failed to regulate their personal space based on the familiarity of the person they were interacting with. Findings are discussed in relation to the wider social profile associated with WS, and the possible impact of atypical personal space regulation on social vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new virtual reality task was employed which uses preference for interpersonal distance to social stimuli to examine social motivation and emotion perception in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Nineteen high function children with higher functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder (HFASD) and 23 age, gender, and IQ matched children with typical development (TD) used a joy stick to position themselves closer or further from virtual avatars while attempting to identify six emotions expressed by the avatars, happiness, fear, anger, disgust, sadness, and surprise that were expressed at different levels of intensity. The results indicated that children with HFASD displayed significantly less approach behavior to the positive happy expression than did children with TD, who displayed increases in approach behavior to higher intensities of happy expressions. Alternatively, all groups tended to withdraw from negative emotions to the same extent and there were no diagnostic group differences in accuracy of recognition of any of the six emotions. This pattern of results is consistent with theory that suggests that some children with HFASD display atypical social-approach motivation, or sensitivity to the positive reward value of positive social-emotional events. Conversely, there was little evidence that a tendency to withdraw from social-emotional stimuli, or a failure to process social emotional stimuli, was a component of social behavior task performance in this sample of children with HFASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children with cancer and their parents report that treatment-related procedures are more traumatic and painful than cancer itself. Competing hypotheses have emerged regarding relations between parents’ social support and child pain and distress. Little is known about caregivers’ use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors that may function as social support messages. This study describes caregivers’ interpersonal distance and touch behaviors during painful pediatric oncology procedures and examines relations between those behaviors and children’s pain and distress. Caregivers’ total touch time and instrumental (task-oriented) touch time, but not supportive touch time, during the actual procedure co-varied with children’s procedural pain and distress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]