Search

The transport and deposition of atmospheric pollutants in the Himalayas have a adverse impact on the climate, cryosphere, ecosystem, and monsoon patterns. Unfortunately, there is a insufficiency of data on trace element concentrations and behaviors in the high-altitude Himalayan region, leading to limited research in this area. This study presents a comprehensive and detailed comprehension of trace element deposition, its spatial distribution, seasonal variations, and anthropogenic signals in the high-altitude Kashmir region of the Western Himalayas. Our investigation involved the analysis of 10 trace elements (Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb) in glacier ice, snow pits, surface snow, and rainwater collected at various sites including Kolahoi, Thajwas, Pahalgam (Greater Himalayan ranges), and Kongdori and Shopian (Pir Panjal Ranges) during 2021. The study reveals distinct ranges of concentrations for the trace elements at different sampling sites. Our analysis of trace element concentration depth profiles in snow pits reveals seasonal fluctuations during the deposition year. The highest concentrations were found in the autumn (below 20 cm) and summer (top layer), compared to the winter concentration (10–20 cm). The high enrichment factors (EFs) suggest the severity of human-induced trace metal deposition in the western Himalayan region, relative to surrounding regions. Surprisingly, the concentrations and EFs of trace elements showed seasonal contradictions, with lower concentration values and higher EFs during the non-monsoon season and vice versa. A source apportionment analysis using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) technique identified five sources of trace element deposition in the region, including crustal sources (32.33%), coal combustion (15.62%), biomass burning (17.63%), traffic emission (18.8%), and industrial sources (15.6%). Additionally, the study incorporated backward trajectories coupled with δ18O using the NOAA HYSPLIT model to estimate moisture sources in the region, which suggests atmospheric pollutants predominately deposited from the large-scale atmospheric circulation from westerlies (75%) during non-monsoon season. These findings underscore the urgent need for enhanced monitoring and research efforts in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing demand for water and energy resources has led to widespread dam construction, particularly in ecologically sensitive regions like the Himalayan Range. This study focuses on the Uttarakhand state in the Western Himalayas, where hydroelectric projects (HEPs) have significantly altered river flow regimes. The research investigates the impact of flow alterations on the composition and structure of riparian vegetation in the Garhwal Himalayas, specifically analysing four rivers regulated by hydroelectric projects. Utilizing the paired-reach comparison method, control (undisturbed), diverted (downstream of barrage/dam), and altered flow conditions (downstream of water outlet) were examined. The research reveals diverse and unique riparian ecosystems, with 89 genera and 113 taxa identified, showcasing the dominance of families like Asteraceae and Lamiaceae. The study unveils the structural importance of key species such as Berberis asiatica and Artemisia nilagirica. The density, diversity, and richness of shrub and herb species vary significantly across flow conditions. Notably, altered flow conditions demonstrate resilience in vegetation structure, while diverted conditions exhibit decreased species richness and density. The study emphasizes the importance of nuanced environmental flow management for mitigating adverse effects on riparian biodiversity in the fragile Himalayan region. These findings contribute to the global discourse on dam impacts and riparian ecology, shedding light on the complexities of this dynamic relationship in a vulnerable ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional knowledge is crucial in illustrating how faunal resources are exploited for a variety of purposes, ranging from food to the exploitation of their parts as decorative accents and even traditional medicine. However, unrestrained use may endanger the existence of the species. In terms of traditional usage and hunting status, very little study has been undertaken in India and much less so in the western Himalayas (Jammu & Kashmir). Five ethnic groups' information on ethnozoological and hunting was gathered through semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires, group discussions, and interviews. The data was subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis and ordination methods (Principal Component Analysis). Three categories—single, double, and multiple uses—were used to classify the traditional uses. In the current study, we documented ethnozoological applications of 25 wild species from 12 families in the western Himalayan region. The most frequently used animal part was meat (29.2%), and the highest priority of the local people was for medicinal usage (29.3%). Across ethnic groups, the Bakarwal and Gujjar showed greater similarity in use, whereas the least overlap was observed between Dogra and Kashmiri. Meanwhile, a single species (Glaucidium radiatum) was unique in being used by Dogra ethnic group only. Bakarwal and Gujjar exhibit cultural similarity due to intermarriage and shared religions, in contrast to Dogra and Kashmiri, who, with distinct religious and cultural identities, demonstrate minimal connection. Finally, we evaluated the protection status of the species and based upon the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (WPA) categorization it was observed that 48% belonged to Schedule-I, 4% belonged to Schedule-II, 16% belonged to Schedule-III, and 12% belonged to Schedule-IV. The study discovered that the indigenous population relies on the Schedule-I species with high use value was observed for species like Ursus thibetanus (0.60), Moschus moschiferus (0.57), Panthera pardus (0.52) and Cervus elaphus hanglu (0.38). These species require attention by immediately addressing unsustainable harvesting and encouraging educational efforts directed at all stakeholders, from collectors to end users. This study can be used as a starting point for learning how ethnozoological studies might help build sustainable long-term conservation and management plans for animal resources in the Himalayas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates the role of varying subglacial drainage distribution, discharge patterns and reactive mineralogy in switching the chemical weathering mechanism and altering CO2 drawdown in distinct hydromicroclimate. Catchments with less glacierized area (Stok and Phutse in cold-arid zones) bestow high (ablation/accumulation)area ratio and large spatial extent of channelized subglacial conduits and, thus permit high specific discharge. Conversely, Chhota Shigri (CS) acquires large glacierized portion covered under accumulation zone. The low (ablation/accumulation)area ratio promotes the development of lesser channelized and more distributed subglacial drainage, allowing low specific discharge in CS basin. As a consequence of distinct drainage characteristics, carbonation reaction processed through atmospheric CO2 and calcite dissolution becomes the locus of solute generation in Phutse and Stok. Correspondingly, carbonate weathering mediated CO2 drawdown override and remains on the higher side than silicate weathering and thus makes the system potential sink to atmospheric CO2. Meltwater draining in Phutse and Stok shows neutral pH, low sulphate mass fractionation (SMF) and low pCO2. In contrary, Chhota Shigri augments predominant sulphide oxidation and carbonation via atmospheric CO2 as a major source of H+ for chemical weathering during low and high ablation seasons, respectively. Elevated role of sulphide oxidation in chemical weathering promotes high SMF, high pCO2 and lowered alkalinity during low ablation, which may act as a source of atmospheric CO2 in Chhota Shigri. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the proportional contribution of snow/ice melt, rainfall, and groundwater to Sutlej River discharge at various locations. Sutlej River is a major tributary of the Indus River system and an important water supply source for irrigation through the canal network in northwest India. Here, we used hydrograph separation and associated uncertainty and applied the snowmelt runoff model (SNOWMOD) to estimate the contribution from different water sources to the Sutlej River. We used δ18O and electrical conductivity values of different waters for the hydrograph-separation approach. The first-order Gaussian error propagation and Monte-Carlo simulation are used to assess the accuracy. The estimated contribution at Rampur is ~ 62.7% (snow/ice melt), 18.7% (rainfall), and ~ 18.4% (groundwater); for Ropar is 59 ± 2% (snow/ice melt), 23 ± 2% (rainfall), and 18 ± 2% (groundwater); and for Yusufpur, 25 ± 3% (snow/ice melt), 39 ± 3% (rainfall), and 36 ± 2% (groundwater) during July–December 2013. The findings from the hydrograph-separation and SNOWMOD analysis established a fundamental understanding of the hydrological processes in the Sutlej River system, providing valuable baseline data essential for developing sustainable water resource management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Himalayacalamus falconeri is a socio-economically important temperate woody bamboo of north-western Himalayas, which has been investigated for genetic diversity and population genetic structure across distribution range in western Himalayas using genomic STMS markers. The calculated diversity measures have indicated a high gene diversity in H. falconeri at population level (Ho = 0.637; He = 0.714; Ar = 5.05). Despite the larger proportion of genetic variation (88%) confined within the populations, a moderate level of genetic differentiation (FST = 0.121) was detected with relatively lower gene flow (Nm = 1.891). Furthermore, clustering and STRUCTURE analysis displayed high genetic heterogeneity in a metapopulation, where populations in both the spatially disconnected regions of the Uttarakhand state, Garhwal and Kumaon, were clustered in different groups. Whereas, nested sub clustering and between-population genetic admixing were not correlated to their physical proximity. Also, the Mantel test supports the isolation by distance model showing a significant correlation between genetic and horizontal geographic distances. For conservation implications, diverse hotspots with high allelic richness were also identified in both the geographical regions of Uttarakhand state. To the best of our knowledge, it is a pioneer study presenting in depth knowledge of metapopulation in any Indian temperate bamboo, which will be of paramount importance to the researchers, foresters, and policymakers for guiding future conservation decisions of H. falconeri in the Indian Himalayan Regions (IHRs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Present cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate riverine water quality in Western Himalayan region of India and assess carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic human health risks. Water samples collected from 12 different sampling locations were analyzed for 21 physicochemical and biological parameters including heavy metals using standard procedures. Mean values of TDS, turbidity, Ca, K, BOD, and COD were found to be higher than the levels specified by WHO for drinking water. Most of analyzed parameters had statistically significant (p < 0.05) correlation among them. Water quality and heavy metal pollution indices of samples ranged from 22.84 to 235.69 and 22.30 to 235.92, respectively. Except for Cd and Zn, concentrations of Pb, Cr, Cu, and Fe were found to be higher than permissible limits. Hazard quotient for oral and dermal exposures and overall hazard indices for heavy metals were < 1, signifying negligible non-carcinogenic risk. However, carcinogenic risk due to exposure to Cr among adults and children was 3.25 × 10−4 and 4.05 × 10−4, respectively, i.e., > 1 per 10,000 inhabitants indicating a high carcinogenic risk. For Pb, it was 1.38 × 10−5 and 1.72 × 10−5 for adults and children, respectively, indicating a medium risk. This study highlights the deterioration of water quality in the Western Himalayan region of India and emphasizes the importance of implementing strict enforcement and remedial measures to protect human and environmental health. Such measures are crucial to prevent further degradation of water quality and to restore the wholesomeness of these valuable resources for the benefit of current and future generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The snow leopard population in Union Territory of Ladakh (UTL), India is at the centre of five out of eight mountain ranges within the species' habitat in the high-mountain Asia. Its strategic location is of immense conservation significance to maintain genetic connectivity and metapopulation dynamics of snow leopards (Panthera uncia). Therefore, we provide the first estimates of the snow leopard's individual-based spatial genetic characteristics from UTL. Multi-locus genotyping (n = 14 loci) of individuals (n = 19) revealed moderate genetic diversity in the population (mean number of alleles = 5.86 ± 0.55, observed heterozygosity = 0.48 ± 0.05, expected heterozygosity = 0.65 ± 0.03, allelic richness = 2.65 ± 0.15). We did not observe any evidence of population structuring (using STRUCTURE and Factorial Correspondence Analysis) or isolation by distance. However, the clustering approach based on genetic distance (Nei's standard distance and Cavalli-Sforza and Edwards distance) and subsequent discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) revealed three sub-clusters of related individuals within the study population without any spatial correlates. We observed 1.2% first-order relatives, suggesting sufficient dispersal and panmixia in the UTL population. We observed high fixation index (FIS = 0.26 ± 0.05; 0.17 ± 0.03 upon removing loci with null alleles) and presence of individuals from genetically divergent populations in UTL. Hence, the high positive FIS value could be attributed to both Wahlund effect and inbreeding. Prioritization and effective conservation planning of the UTL population as a source would benefit the global snow leopard population by (i) maintaining connectivity between the Himalayas and the central Asian mountain ranges, and (ii) providing refuge during future climate change-related range contraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The snow leopard (Panthera uncia), one of the most threatened felids distributed along the high-altitude mountains in the Himalayas, has experienced a steady population decline in most of its distribution range due to the loss of suitable habitats, anthropogenic activities, and retaliatory killings. We undertook the genetic assessment of the snow leopard in the Western Himalaya, India, and identified 18 unique individuals. The snow leopard populations exhibited moderate genetic variability, i.e., effective number of alleles = 3.96 ± 0.004, observed heterozygosity = 0.539 ± 0.038 and no variation at mtDNA. We found the snow leopard populations under panmixia, possibly due to the long-ranging behavior and dispersal patterns. We present the first population genetic account of the snow leopard from the Western Himalayas and discuss the importance of non-invasive genetics in monitoring the snow leopard population in the tough terrain of the trans-Himalayan region of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An outbreak of sheeppox was investigated in a cluster of villages situated in Western Himalayan ranges of a Northern Indian state. Non-migratory sheep (n = 80) of native breeds namely Gaddi and Rampur Bushair were infected and 15 have died. The outbreak started after a few animals contracted the disease during the summer grazing period at the highland pastures from migrating flocks of sheep. This initial outbreak resulted in a further spreading of the disease into the valley. Clinical examination revealed varying degree of cutaneous papular lesions and respiratory distress. Upon necropsy, visceral lesions in the lungs, trachea and kidneys were also found. Clinical and morbid samples were found positive for sheeppox virus using group specific P32 gene and I3L gene based multiplex PCR differentiating sheeppox and goatpox viruses. Histopathological, hematological and blood biochemical analysis also supported the pathology of an acute viral infection. The causative sheeppox virus strain was isolated using lamb testicular cell culture and phylogenetic analysis, based upon P32 and RPO30 genes, showed its clustering with other Indian strains reported from neighboring states. This study demonstrated the spread of sheeppox virus to new niches by migratory sheep flocks leading to establishment of endemic infections in many new pockets of higher Western Himalayas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerosol behavior over the Himalayas plays an important role in the regional climate of South Asia. Previous studies at high-altitude observatories have provided evidence of the impact of long-range transport of pollutants from the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP). However, little information exists for the valley areas in the high Himalayas where significant local anthropogenic emissions can act as additional sources of short-living climate forcers and pollutants. The valley areas host most economic activities based on agriculture, forestry, and pilgrimage during every summer season. We report here first measurements at a valley site at ~2600 m a.s.l. on the trek to the Gangotri glacier (Gaumukh), in the Western Himalayas, where local infrastructures for atmospheric measurements are absent. The study comprised short-term measurement of aerosols, chemical characterization, and estimation of aerosol radiative forcing (ARF) during the winter and summer periods (2015–2016). The particulate matter mass concentrations were observed to be higher than the permissible limit during the summer campaigns. We obtained clear evidence of the impact of local anthropogenic sources: particulate nitrate is associated with coarse aerosol particles, the black carbon (BC) mass fraction appears undiluted with respect to measurements performed in the lower Himalayas, and in winter, both BC and sulfate concentrations in the valley site are well above the background levels reported from literature studies for mountain peaks. Finally, high concentrations of trace metals such as copper point to anthropogenic activities, including combustion and agriculture. While most studies in the Himalayas have addressed pollution in the high Himalayas in terms of transport from IGP, our study provides clear evidence that local sources cannot be overlooked over the high-altitude Himalayas. The estimated direct clear-sky ARF was estimated to be in the range of −0.1 to +1.6 W m−2, with significant heating in the atmosphere over the high-altitude Himalayan study site. These results indicate the need to establish systematic aerosol monitoring activities in the high Himalayan valleys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The sambar (Rusa unicolor) is one of the largest deer distributed across diverse habitats of India and threatened due to habitat loss, changes in the land-use patterns, illegal poaching, and anthropogenic disturbances. Here, we report the first population genetics account of sambar deer from the Western Himalayas. Methods and results: We observed relatively compromised genetic diversity (π = 0.0008 ± 0.0006 at mtDNA and Ho = 0.499 ± 0.056 at nDNA). We identified 60 unique individuals using a select panel of seven loci (PID sib cum 1.60E-03). Bayesian skyline plot showed a stable demographic history since the past 8 kyr with a decline in recent years. The population lacked genetic structuring, likely due to the contiguous distribution and large dispersal patterns of sambar. Conclusion: The preliminary findings are valuable in exploring the utility of genetic diversity in monitoring the sambar population, estimating density following capture-recapture analysis, and aid to the conservation planning of sambar in large landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Western Himalayas offer diverse environments for investigating the diversity and distribution of microbial communities and their response to both the abiotic and biotic factors across the entire altitudinal gradient. Such investigations contribute significantly to our understanding of the complex ecological processes that shape microbial diversity. The proposed study focuses on the investigation of the bacterial and fungal communities in the forest and alpine grasslands of the Western Himalayan region, as well as their relationship with the physicochemical parameters of soil. A total of 185 isolates were obtained using the culture-based technique belonging to Bacillus (37%), Micrococcus (16%), and Staphylococcus (7%). Targeted metagenomics revealed the abundance of bacterial phyla Pseudomonadota (23%) followed by Acidobacteriota (20.2%), Chloroflexota (15%), and Bacillota (11.3%). At the genera level, CandidatusUdaeobacter (6%), Subgroup&#95;2 (5.5%) of phylum Acidobacteriota, and uncultured Ktedonobacterales HSB&#95;OF53-F07 (5.2%) of Choloroflexota phylum were found to be preponderant. Mycobiome predominantly comprised of phyla Ascomycota (54.1%), Basidiomycota (24%), and Mortierellomycota (19.1%) with Archaeorhizomyces (19.1%), Mortierella (19.1%), and Russula (5.4%) being the most abundant genera. Spearman's correlation revealed that the bacterial community was most influenced by total nitrogen in the soil followed by soil organic carbon as compared to other soil physicochemical factors. The study establishes a fundamental relationship between microbial communities and the physicochemical properties of soil. Furthermore, the study provides valuable insights into the complex interplay between biotic and abiotic factors that influence the microbial community composition of this unique region across various elevations., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.)

In the recent past, there were extensive floods in the Western Himalayan region (WHR) due to continuous long spells of heavy rainfall for 3–4 days that caused a huge loss in life and property over the region. WHR is a data sparse region, with limited meteorological stations having a continuous long spell of daily precipitation data. In the present study, spatial and temporal variability of seasonal as well as annual precipitation, precipitation days and maximum accumulated daily, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days and 5 days precipitation over WHR is considered by using daily precipitation data of 18 meteorological stations of the region. Out of 18 meteorological stations, five stations have continuous data from 1901 to 1980 and remaining 13 stations data is considered for their common period from 1981 to 2014. Accordingly, the analysis is carried out in two parts, first for 1901–1980 (for 5 stations) and second for 1981–2014 (for all the 18 stations). The analysis suggests high variability in the spatial and temporal distribution of seasonal as well as maximum accumulated daily to 5 days precipitation over WHR. In general, increasing trends in maximum accumulated precipitation in lower altitude stations and decreasing trends in higher altitude stations are observed in monsoon season and vice-versa in the winter season during the period 1981–2014. The increase in maximum accumulated daily to 5 days precipitation is up to 9.7 mm per decade during 1901–1980 and is up to 45.5 mm per decade during 1981–2014 in monsoon season in lower altitude stations. Thus, the increase in maximum accumulated precipitation during monsoon season becomes manifold during 1981–2014 as compared to the period 1901–1980. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change presents a serious threat to endangered plant species within a restricted habitat. Lilium polyphyllum D.Don ex Royle is a species indigenous to the coniferous forests of the Western Himalaya. However, over exploitation, due to its high medicinal properties and demands of industry, has resulted in a steep decline of its natural habitats. Consequently, the species is listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The present study was carried out in the Western Himalayan region using the maximum entropy model (MaxEnt) to predict the potential distribution of L. polyphyllum in respect of IPCC future climatic scenarios. The modeling used mutually least correlated bioclimatic variables and topographic data over 53 occurrence locations. Future scenarios include IPCC Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 2.6 and 8.5 (representing less harmful and harsh climatic conditions) for the years 2050 and 2070. The main predictor variables contributing to the habitat are the precipitation of the driest month (52.7%), elevation (13.9%) and temperature seasonality (7.8%). Current potential habitats for L. polyphyllum have been located in the north-west and south-east regions of the Western Himalaya. Future climate change scenarios predict that the potential habitats of this species will shrink by 38–81% in these regions and moreover the habitats will shift towards the south-east, making Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand state of India as favourable habitats in the future. These findings assist in the identification of the potential conservation areas and provision of protection against climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Primula is an important floristic element of the Western Himalayan flora as an indicator of mountain wetlands and glacial foreland habitats vital for the ecosystem functioning. Current study was designed to investigate the diversity and distribution of the Primula species in the Kashmir Himalayas. The primary ecological data was collected from 22 wetland and glacial sites in the state of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) Pakistan. Data was subsequently analyzed through diversity indices and multivariate ordination analyses. Five Primula species were recorded from the region including P. macrophylla, P. denticulata, P. rosea, P. elliptica and P. stuartii 1st time reported from the region. The flora associated with the genus Primula consist of 304 plant belonging to 61 botanical families recorded from 880 quadrates (1 m2) at the Primula habitats. The frequencies of the Primula species were in order of P. denticulata (54.5%) > P. macrophylla (36.3%) > P. rosea (36.3%) > P. elliptica (13%) > P. stuartii (4.54%). The flora was dominated by the Hemicryptophytic and Geophytic life forms whereas microphylls were the dominant leaf size class. The vegetation communities were characterized with moderate levels of diversity with low maturity index. Ordination significantly explained the species distribution pattern correlated with the geographic attributes and microclimates. P. elliptica and P. stuartii were the rarest Primroses whereas 61 plants were found to be threatened having low (< 0.2) IVI values requiring immediate conservation efforts. Results provide valuable scientific information to monitor the conservation status of the Primula genus and ensure the sustainability of wetland and Glacial fore land habitats in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpea is one of the most important grain legume crops in the world. India is the largest producer, consumer as well as importer of chickpea. Cold stress (temperature < 15 °C) is one of the important abiotic stresses limiting chickpea production by hampering its growth and vigor at all phenological stages. This study was aimed to characterize a diverse set of 366 chickpea genotypes for cold tolerance and identify most promising cold tolerant chickpea genotypes in the Western-Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir, India. The 366 genotypes used during the present study including genotypes belonging to cultivated, primary and secondary gene pools of chickpea. Two important approaches were used including visual screening under field conditions and screening under controlled conditions by measuring cell membrane stability through electrolyte leakage tests. The analysis of trait data collected through both the approaches led to the identification of five most promising/candidate cold tolerant chickpea genotypes including one wild genotype "Ortan-066" from secondary gene pool species (C. echinospermum), one wild genotype "Cudi 1-022" from primary gene pool species (C. reticulatum) and three genotypes (IC 116783, ICC 15200 and AGBLG 170004) from the cultivated species (Cicer arietinum). Wild genotype "Ortan-066" was found best cold tolerance source with the mean Cold Tolerance Rating (CTR) of 2 and Electrolyte Leakage Index (ELI) of 10.82%, followed by wild genotype "Cudi 1-022" (CTR = 3, ELI = 18.89%), and three cultivated genotypes viz., IC 116783, ICC 15200 and AGBL-G-170004, with the mean CTR of 3 and an estimated mean ELI of 21.26%, 21.58% and 21.94%, respectively. The promising, candidate cold tolerant genotypes identified during the present study could be used in chickpea breeding programs aimed at improving cold tolerance of cultivated chickpea worldwide. The candidate lines can be also used for developing bi-parental mapping populations, wild × cultivated introgression lines, transcriptomics and for differential expression analysis of cold tolerant genes in chickpea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Continuous and accurate monitoring of earth surface changes over rugged terrain Himalayas is important to manage natural resources and mitigate natural hazards. Conventional techniques generally focus on per-pixel based processing and overlook the sub-pixel variations occurring especially in case of low or moderate resolution remotely sensed data. However, the existing subpixel-based change detection (SCD) models are less effective to detect the mixed pixel information at its complexity level especially over rugged terrain regions. To overcome such issues, a topographically controlled SCD model has been proposed which is an improved version of widely used per-pixel based change vector analysis (CVA) and hence, named as a subpixel-based change vector analysis (SCVA). This study has been conducted over a part of the Western Himalayas using the advanced wide-field sensor (AWiFS) and Landsat-8 datasets. To check the effectiveness of the proposed SCVA, the cross-validation of the results has been done with the existing neural network-based SCD (NN-SCD) and per-pixel based models such as fuzzy-based CVA (FCVA) and post-classification comparison (PCC). The results have shown that SCVA offered robust performance (85.6%–86.4%) as compared to NN-SCD (81.6%–82.4%), PCC (79.2%–80.4%), and FCVA (81.2%–83.6%). We concluded that SCVA helps in reducing the detection of spurious pixels and improve the efficacy of generating change maps. This study is beneficial for the accurate monitoring of glacier retreat and snow cover variability over rugged terrain regions using moderate resolution remotely sensed datasets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Red giant gliding squirrel (Petaurista petaurista) is the most common species of gliding squirrel found in the Western Himalayan range. So far, no record of any other species exists from in and around Great Himalayan National Park, Himachal Pradesh. During the recent spotlight survey done in the month of October 2018 two individuals of Kashmir gliding squirrel (Eoglaucomys fimbriatus) and eleven individuals of Red giant gliding squirrels (P. petaurista) were observed in and around Great Himalayan National Park. The present study confirms the presence of Kashmir gliding squirrel (E. fimbriatus) in Great Himalayan National Park and its fringe areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spring water is a reliable source of potable water to many communities and habitants in western Himalayan region of India. The present study evaluates the hydrochemical nature of spring water using various drinking parameters and agricultural indices in upper Beas basin of Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. Fifty springs were sampled for the estimation of physico-chemical parameters and major ions. The results indicate that majority of the spring waters in the study area are suitable for drinking as well as irrigation purposes except for few locations. About 14% of springs showed high nitrate content (45 to 92.6 mg/L) more than BIS permissible limit of 45 mg/L. The source of contamination could be sewage disposal, livestock waste and fertilizers. Fluoride (0.16–0.49 mg/L) was found to be within permissible limits for drinking. Drinking Water Quality Index ranges from 1.74 to 108, and Irrigation Water Quality Index ranges from 0.27 to 8.21. Both these indices indicate that the spring water falls in excellent to good category and is suitable in terms of potability and irrigation uses. Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the spring waters indicate that alkaline earths (Ca2+ + Mg2+) dominate alkalies (Na+ + K+) and strong acids (SO42− + Cl−) dominate weak acids (CO32− + HCO3−). Based on Piper's classification, the spring water data falls in no cation–no anion dominant zone followed by carbonate hardness (secondary alkalinity) zone and hydrochemical trends (Piper's and Gibb's plots) inferred that spring water chemistry is mainly controlled by water rock interaction followed by rainwater chemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphometric and molecular divergence among four butterfly species of the families Nymphalidae and Pieridae from the western Himalaya region were investigated using molecular tools, traditional morphometric measures and a truss network system. The considered species were Danaus chrysippus, Vanessa cardui, Pieris brassicae and Pieris canidia. Traditional taxonomy is sometimes unable to discriminate cryptic species or species that have close morphological features. Although taxonomists carefully examine external body features to differentiate the species; however, there is a risk for misidentification during a visual assessment of cryptic species. Therefore, we aimed to use the truss network system of 14 morphological landmarks interconnected to yield 90 variables about molecular taxonomy. Principal component analysis (PCA), discriminant function analysis (DFA) and cluster analysis (CA) were employed to determine morphometric variations. In the traditional analysis, 79, 68, 16 and 5 characters out of 90 were found significant (p < 0.05) for D. chrysippus, V. cardui, P. brassicae and P. canidia, respectively. One to seven principal components were extracted through PCA; they explained 87.5–100% of the total variance in samples. Notably, DFA correctly classified 100% of the original grouped cases and 100% of the cross-validated grouped cases. However, the variations were not the same for the two different methods (truss and traditional) employed for the analysis. We correctly identified all the species; the interspecies sequence divergence was between 0.1034 and 0.1398, and the intra-species sequence divergence range was 0.0001 to 0.0128 using the Cytochrome c oxidase subunit-I (COI) gene. The present study provides useful information about the application and complementary role of traditional with truss morphometric analysis for the precise identification and classification of the selected species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aims at developing a hybrid ground motion prediction equation (GMPE) for spectral acceleration in Western Himalayas and North-Eastern India. The GMPE is derived using an efficient nonparametric modelling based on neural network algorithm. In this study, owing to sparsity in the recorded ground motions (498 recordings) for the region, the available information is combined with 13,294 records from the well-tested NGA-West 2 database. For the methodology adopted in the study, regional flags are assigned to the records. Thus, given a magnitude, distance, shear wave velocity, fault type and region, the model is able to predict the possible spectral acceleration. The developed GMPE is observed to be unbiased with respect to region. Further, the inter- and intra-event standard deviations are also in acceptable ranges. It is observed that developed GMPE for Western Himalayas and North-Eastern India is able to capture all the known ground motion characteristics. Additionally, the GMPE is compared with the existing GMPE for rock-type soil condition available for the Western Himalayas and North-Eastern India. Furthermore, applicability of the developed GMPE model in estimating hazard is analysed by obtaining the uniform hazard response spectra for Delhi and Guwahati. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first stage of seismic impact assessments for engineering calculations of structural earthquake resistance is seismic hazard assessment. For this, seismological and seismotectonic studies identify seismogenic structures, then determine the maximum credible magnitudes, recurrence periods, faulting types, distances between selected faults and constructions site, and ground conditions at said sites. After which, it is necessary to evaluate changes in the acceleration amplitudes with distance in order to reveal the regularities in the attenuation of peak ground accelerations. The article discusses various methods for estimating the regularities of acceleration attenuation with distance. It is shown that empirical estimates of the mean amplitudes for various distances have the highest accuracy. No a priori expressions are applied to describe the amplitude attenuation curves. At the Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth (Moscow), using global data, it is shown that in the engineering range of accelerations, there are three zones distinguished by attenuation and dependences on the focal mechanism and soil conditions. Each zone has its own attenuation equation. For each equation, the corresponding standard deviation is estimated. The empirical method for estimating attenuation has been applied to the Garhwal region of the Himalayan seismic belt. Records of strong movements acquired during strong earthquakes in this region are used: Dharamsala (April 26, 1986, MW = 5.5), Uttarkashi (October 20, 1991, MW = 6.8), and Chamoli (March 28, 1999, MW = 6.5). An attenuation curve has been plotted for the Garhwal region. The empirical data are approximated by the estimated attenuation equations with a standard deviation of about 50% versus 100% by the semiempirical method. The question of regional attenuation features in this Himalayan region is considered. The results are useful in assessing seismic hazard/seismic risk in the Himalayas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change effects on Himalayas are expectedly more pronounced than any other mountainous ecoregion of the world with expected threat of meltdown by the year 2100 if effective checks are not imposed. The impacts of this climate warming in the geologically fragile Himalayas has started to show its effects on shifting precipitation patterns, increasing temperatures, glaciers meltdown, species richness patterns and overall unpredictable microclimatic conditions. For measuring such impacts of current climate warming in Himalayan ecosystems, need of ecological substitutes has been stressed on by different United Nation conventions. Lichens in contrast to vascular flora have long been proved to act as cost effective global indicators for measuring ecosystems responses to environmental climate. The variations in microclimatic attributes and their effects on photosynthetic efficiency and distribution were studied in geologically fragile ecosystem of Govind Pashu Vihar National Park in Garhwal Himalayas. Total 217 species of lichens comprising 80 genera and 35 families were found along different elevations. Among the different habitat groups, corticolous lichens showed their dominance (123 species) followed by saxicolous (65 species) and terricolous (29 species) lichens. Corticolous forms were dominated by crustose while saxicolous and terricolous were mostly fruticose growth forms. Mostly large number of species showed a narrow distribution with maximum species richness observed in mid elevation zones (1950–2200 m) followed by a gradual decline towards higher elevations. Phaeophyscia hispidula, Parmotrema reticulatum and Flavoparmelia caperata showed wider ecological amplitude. Out of these species, P. hispidula and F. caperata were further subjected to chlorophyll fluorescence measurements with a pulse amplified modulated fluorometer to access photosynthetic quenching efficiencies. Maximum electron transport rates (ETR; 96 ± 5.76 μmol e− m−2 s−1) were observed in Phaeophyscia hispidula (1550 m) while F. caperata showed nearly 21% lower ETR. Photochemical quenching (qP; 0.5 ± 0.01) was maximum at 1550 m elevation in F. caperata while P. hispidula showed maximum qP values at 2200 m elevation, showing it's higher tolerances towards extreme light stresses. F. caperata showed higher (0.102 ± 0.003) non photochemical quenching (NPQ) in comparison to P. hispidula (0.062 ± 0.001) at extreme elevations of 3508 m. P. hispidula overall showed more toxitolerant nature towards abiotic stresses as compared to F. caperata. Higher photosynthetically active radiation (PAR; 1600–2350 µmol m−2 s−1), thallus hydration levels and extreme variations in air temperature (5.75–31.65 °C), ambient humidity along elevations were imperative in controlling species richness, distribution and photosynthetic quenching of lichen flora in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intense rainfall events lead to floods and landslides in the Western Himalayas (WH). These rainfall amounts are considered comparatively moderate over the plains. These events, called 'cloudbursts,' are convective triggered followed by orographically locked phenomena producing sudden high-intensity rainfall over a small area. Early warning and prediction of such severe local weather systems is important to mitigate societal impacts arising from the accompanying flash floods, landslides, etc. Due to lack of ground-based observations, cloudbursts over remote and unpopulated hilly areas often go unreported. Present study examines a cloudburst occurred at Ladakh (Leh) in the WH in the early hours of August 5, 2010, using remotely sensed rainfall data from Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and Kalpana-1. The storm lasted for 2 days starting from August 3, 2010, followed by flash floods. Rain-band propagation over the region is studied from Kalpana-1 3-hourly rainfall estimates using Indian Satellite (INSAT) multi-spectral rainfall algorithm (IMSRA) and TRMM rainfall estimates using TRMM 3B42 algorithm. Quantitative and qualitative assessment and comparison of these two products is made. It is observed that there is decrease in satellite brightness temperature (BT) during the rainfall event. Initiation of rainfall occurs at about < 255 K. Maximum of 16.75 mm/h rainfall is observed over the Jammu and Kashmir at 21 GMT from TRMM 3B42 estimates. In addition, it is observed that Kalpana-1 IMSRA underestimates the rainfall observations with respect to Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) rainfall estimates. Spatial correlation at 5% significant level is evaluated, and similarities in rainfall estimates based on rainfall retrieval algorithms are made during the cloudburst event. Mean and standard deviations depict that TRMM 3B42 and IMD rainfall estimates are closer in terms of spatial signature, but estimates of rainfall from Kalpana-1 underestimate the mean and standard deviation signature. In view of orographic contribution, it has been observed that linear fit is the better than nonlinear with less rainfall bias at 90% confidence bound over the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life cycle of glaciers in the Himalayan region has notably changed due to the climatic variability since last few decades. Glaciers across the world and specially the Himalayan glaciers have shown large scale degeneration in the last few decades. Himalayan glaciers serve as an important fresh water resource for the downstream communities, who are dependent on this water for domestic and other purposes. Therefore, glacier shrinkage and the associated hydrological changes pose a significant problem for regional-scale water budgets and resource management. These issues necessitate the regular and rigorous monitoring of the wastage pattern of the Himalayan glaciers in field and using satellite remote sensing data. In this work, we report rapid and enhanced degeneration of the frontal part of the Kangriz glacier, Jammu and Kashmir (J & K), in terms of surface melting, debris cover, snout characteristics and meltwater discharge. Ablation data acquired during 2016-2017 shows the average lowering of the frontal part of the glacier to be ~148 ± 34 cm, one-third of which was found to have occurred within a 13 day time period in September, 2017. Also, the quantum of ice melt was found to be inversely influenced (r = -0.84) by the debris thickness. 15 day meltwater discharge measurement revealed its strong relationship with snout disintegration pattern, evidenced twice during the said time period. Volume of water discharged from the glacier was estimated to be 7.91×106 m3 for the measurement duration. Also, mean daily discharge estimated for the 15 days interval showed good positive correction (r = 0.78) with temperature indicating the direct dependency of the former on land surface temperature conditions of the region. Besides the lowering and discharge observations, the frequent ice-block break-offs at the glacier snout further enhance its overall drastic degeneration. The study suggests that, being the largest glacier in the Suru basin, the Kangriz glacier needs to be continuously monitored in order to understand its glacio-hydrological conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Western Himalaya is a strategically important region, where the water resources are shared by China, India and Pakistan. The economy of the region is largely dependent on the water resources delivered by snow and glacier melt. The presented study used stable isotopes of water to further understand the basin-scale hydro-meteorological, hydrological and recharge processes in three high-altitude mountainous basins of the western Himalayas. The study provided new insights in understanding the dominant factors affecting the isotopic composition of the precipitation, snowpack, glacier melt, streams and springs. It was observed that elevation-dependent post-depositional processes and snowpack evolution resulted in the higher isotopic altitude gradient in snowpacks. The similar temporal trends of isotopic signals in rivers and karst springs reflect the rapid flow transfer due to karstification of the carbonate aquifers. The attenuation of the extreme isotopic input signal in karst springs appears to be due to the mixing of source waters with the underground karst reservoirs. Basin-wise, the input–output response demonstrates the vital role of winter precipitation in maintaining the perennial flow in streams and karst springs in the region. Isotopic data were also used to estimate the mean recharge altitude of the springs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historical rainfall records reveal that the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events, during the summer monsoon (June-September) season, have significantly risen over the Western Himalayas (WH) and adjoining upper Indus basin since 1950s. Using multiple datasets, the present study investigates the possible coincidences between an increasing trend of precipitation extremes over WH and changes in background flow climatology. The present findings suggest that the combined effects of a weakened southwest monsoon circulation, increased activity of transient upper-air westerly troughs over the WH region, enhanced moisture supply by southerly winds from the Arabian Sea into the Indus basin have likely provided favorable conditions for an increased frequency of certain types of extreme precipitation events over the WH region in recent decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In Himalayas, particularly Jammu and Kashmir, where 85% of people depend on agriculture and allied sectors, 70% of agriculture is rain-fed. While the Himalayas, highly seismic, contribute highest in sediment transported to the world oceans, surface soil is under threat due to erosion, and Rajouri district in western Himalayas is no exception. Various factors, especially land use pattern and climate change, further affect the soil fertility and nutrient contents. However, information on essential nutrients in the soil across the region is meager. Methods: We examined soil texture, soil type, lime status, pH, EC and select nutrients in January (non-cropping season) and June (cropping season) in paddy/wheat fields in Rajouri town, and its upstream and downstream locations. We also examined area under major crops, yield and fertilizer inputs from 2000 to 2012. Results: Wilcoxon signed-rank test, a non-parametric statistical hypothesis test used when comparing two related samples, showed that pH, EC, K, Zn, Fe and Mn are higher in January than in June while OC, N, P, Na, Mg, Ca and Cu are vice versa. Kruskal-Wallis test, another non-parametric statistical hypothesis test used when comparing more than two related samples, showed nutrients varying significantly from upstream to downstream in both the seasons. Area and yield under rice, wheat and maize cultivation during 2000-2012 did not show any significant change. During the period, while significant increase in N and P input was seen, micronutrients remain neglected. Correlation matrix shows significant relation among the nutrients in January and June. In the case of rice, the yield was significantly positively correlated with area under cultivation, but in the case of wheat, the yield was negatively correlated with the area. Conclusions: The study presents baseline information on soil characteristics across seasons and locations in Rajouri. It highlights the inadequacy of the official database and need for generating accurate data on crops and yields that are more authentic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High level of genetic diversity and morphological variations were observed among and within the different Rosa species studied. The key traits which differentiated the species were nature of plant, habit, shape of prickles, shape of stipules, leaflet shape, type of leaf margin, vestiture of ventral side of leaflet and flower shape, whereas, traits for distinguishing the accessions within a species (as in case of accessions from western Himalayan region) were flower colour, petal number, shape of hip and hip colour. Some of the accessions from western Himalayan region formed out-groups (IHBT-WR-18, IHBT-WR-21, IHBT-WR-31and IHBT-WR-43B) and could not be classified at the species level. High degree of variations among the accessions of R. multiflora group as compared to variations among the accessions of R. moschata, R. brunonii and R. cathayensis, suggests high level of out-breeding in R. multiflora which may contribute to further variations. Desirable variations were observed for flower colour, petal number, lack of prickles, perpetual flowering, large flower diameter and large fruit size which contribute significantly to diversity of the roses and have potential use in breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Available published literatures on glacier mass loss and climate studies like temperature and precipitation are reviewed for Lahaul and Spiti region in northern India, which is a part of the western Himalayas. Chhota Shigri and Hamtah Glaciers are both located in the Lahaul and Spiti region and have the longest record of in situ glaciological mass balance (MB) measurements. We have compiled and compared all the dataset (different methods) related to glacier change with climate in the past few decades. Both the glaciers have experienced a significant mass loss during the study period. Different methods show diverse results for the glaciers studied for the same year; however, all results depicts overall unsteady state of both the glaciers. Data of Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) shows a significant increase in average temperature for the entire country and huge variability in precipitation particularly in the state of Himachal Pradesh. Temperature and precipitation are found to be the two main governing factors controlling the glacier health in this region. Thus, it can be said that the glaciers of Lahaul and Spiti region are losing mass due to changing weather conditions, especially the increasing air temperature. However, long-term MB and climate data will give a better insight into understand and predict the future scenario of glacier health in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seismicity in the western Himalayas is highly variable. Several historical and instrumentally recorded devastating earthquakes originated in the western Himalayas which are part of the Alpine-Himalayan belt. Earthquakes cause tremendous loss of life and to the built environment. The amount of loss in terms of life and infrastructure has been rising continuously due to significant increase in population and infrastructure. This study is an attempt to identify seismically susceptible areas in western Himalaya, using pattern recognition technique. An area between latitude 29-36N and longitude 73-80E was considered for this study. Pattern recognition starts with identification, selection and extraction of features from seismotectonic data. These features are then subjected to discriminant analysis and the study area was classified into three categories, viz., Area A: most susceptible area, Area B: moderately susceptible area, and Area C: least susceptible area. Results show that almost the entire states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and a portion of Jammu & Kashmir are classified as Area A, while most of Jammu & Kashmir is classified as Area B and the Indo-Gangetic plains are classified as Area C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present investigation was conducted to analyze the temporal patterns of snow cover area% (SCA%), air temperature, snowfall and river discharge in parts of Chenab basin, western Himalayas. The relationship of mean SCA% with mean air temperature and river discharge was also tested using Pearson's product-moment correlation at 95% confidence limit and further sensitivity analysis of river discharge to SCA and SCA to air temperature was performed. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 8-day surface reflectance product MOD09A1 was used to delineate SCA during the period 2000-2013. Moreover, variation in the lowest elevation from where snow cover area starts (LESCA) was also analyzed and its relationship with mean air temperature was also studied. Non-parametric method, Mann-Kendall test was employed to determine the trend in the SCA%, air temperature, snowfall and river discharge. The investigation carried out for three meteorological stations i.e. Batote, Reasi and Tandi revealed significant findings. At Batote and Reasi, statistically significant decreasing trends were observed over the period 2000 to 2012, for maximum, minimum and mean air temperature. Mean minimum SCA% exhibited a significant upward trend during 2000-2013 which is corroborated by the significantly increasing trend of mean annual snowfall (Tandi station) from 2000 to 2010. Further, significant decreasing trend of river discharge for the winter season at Batote station from 2000 to 2011 and decreasing trends in the maximum, minimum and mean air temperature at Batote and Reasi stations are also consistent with the increasing trend of SCA%. At both Batote and Reasi stations, mean SCA% exhibited significant negative relationship with the mean air temperature. On the other hand, LESCA exhibited positive correlation with the mean air temperature except in a few months, where negative relationship was seen. Sensitivity analysis of river discharge to SCA exhibited very low values of sensitivity coefficient in most of the months, indicating less sensitivity of river discharge to SCA. On the other hand, sensitivity coefficient of SCA to air temperature exhibited comparatively higher values which indicate SCA is more sensitive to air temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand the effect of climate change on constitutive antioxidant and biochemical metabolites in Western Himalayas, five medicinal herbs were selected and grown at two altitudes in Jammu (305 m) and Srinagar (1730 m) with subtropical and temperate climates, respectively. Significant variations were observed in phenols and flavonoids in Hypericum perforatum L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Thymus vulgaris L., Cynara cardunculus L. and Echinacea purpurea L. growing at two locations. High altitude temperate site show variable (up to 13 fold) increase in their content. Proteins (1.3 - 1.8 times), sugars (2.8 - 4.1 times) and free amino acid (1.04 - 1.22 times) were also higher at Srinagar (1730 m). Within these plants, H. perforatum and M. chamomilla have shown higher accumulation of phenols, xanthophylls and proline even at subtropical environment in Jammu (305 m) suggesting potential for increasing their geographical area. The results demonstrate that changing environmental conditions significantly affect the bioactive constituents, which accumulate as a defence strategy by these temperate plants. Their medicinal significance during climate change scenario has also been discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This group has previously highlighted the prevalence of Csp genes from cold Himalayan environments. However, this study has explored the uncultured diazotrophs from metagenomes of western Indian Himalayas. The metagenomic nifH gene clone library was constructed from the Temperate, Subtropical and Tarai soils of Western Himalaya, India followed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. After preliminary screening, selected clones were sequenced. In silico analysis of the clones was done, which documented 83.33 % similarities with unculturable sequence database and more than 70 % similarity with culturable bacterial database. Detailed sequence analysis of 24 nifH clones showed similarity to the corresponding genera of diazotrophs belonging to alpha-, beta-, gamma- and delta-proteobacteria. The prominent diazotrophs were Azotobacter spp., Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Methylococcus capsulatus, Geobacter bemidjiensis, Dechloromonas aromatica, Burkholderia xenovorans, Xanthobacter autotrophicus and Sideroxydans lithotrophicus, respectively. Alignment of these clones with culturable bacterial database suggests that most of the sequences belong to γ-proteobacterium group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The environment of high-altitudinal cold deserts of Western Himalaya is characterized by extensive development of biological soil crusts, with cyanobacteria as dominant component. The knowledge of their taxonomic composition and dependency on soil chemistry and elevation is still fragmentary. We studied the abundance and the phylogenetic diversity of the culturable cyanobacteria and eukaryotic microalgae in soil crusts along altitudinal gradients (4600-5900 m) at two sites in the dry mountains of Ladakh (SW Tibetan Plateau and Eastern Karakoram), using both microscopic and molecular approaches. The effects of environmental factors (altitude, mountain range, and soil physico-chemical parameters) on the composition and biovolume of phototrophs were tested by multivariate redundancy analysis and variance partitioning. Both phylogenetic diversity and composition of morphotypes were similar between Karakorum and Tibetan Plateau. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA gene revealed strains belonging to at least five genera. Besides clusters of common soil genera, e.g., Microcoleus, Nodosilinea, or Nostoc, two distinct clades of simple trichal taxa were newly discovered. The most abundant cyanobacterial orders were Oscillatoriales and Nostacales, whose biovolume increased with increasing elevation, while that of Chroococales decreased. Cyanobacterial species richness was low in that only 15 morphotypes were detected. The environmental factors accounted for 52 % of the total variability in microbial data, 38.7 % of which was explained solely by soil chemical properties, 14.5 % by altitude, and 8.4 % by mountain range. The elevation, soil phosphate, and magnesium were the most important predictors of soil phototrophic communities in both mountain ranges despite their different bedrocks and origin. The present investigation represents a first record on phylogenetic diversity of the cyanobacterial community of biological soil crusts from Western Himalayas and first record from altitudes over 5000 m. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The climate of the Western-Himalayan (WH) region is sensitively dependent on precipitation during the winter and early spring months (December-to-April, DJFMA) produced largely by synoptic weather-systems known as 'Western Disturbances' (WD), which originate from the Mediterranean region and propagate eastward as troughs and cyclonic lows embedded in the sub-tropical westerlies. While the WH region has witnessed a significant rise in surface temperatures since the post-1950s, there are no major trends in the DJFMA seasonal precipitation. Past studies, based on station observations from the WH, have reported a significant increase in the occurrence of extreme precipitation events in recent decades. Here, we have analyzed multi-source climate datasets to understand the increasing frequency of heavy precipitation events over WH. Our analysis suggests that pronounced warming trends over the Tibetan Plateau in recent decades, arising due to the elevation dependency of the climatic warming signal, have favored enhancement of meridional temperature gradients at middle and upper-tropospheric levels over the sub-tropics and mid-latitudes. The present findings indicate that the observed pattern of mid-tropospheric warming trend in recent decades over west-central Asia has led to increased baroclinic instability of the mean westerly winds, thereby favoring increased variability of WDs and higher propensity of heavy precipitation events over the WH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examines the performance of convective parameterization schemes at two different horizontal resolutions (90 and 30 km) in simulating winter (December-February; DJF) circulation and associated precipitation over the Western Himalayas using the regional climate model RegCM4. The model integrations are carried out in a one-way nested mode for three distinct precipitation years (excess, normal and deficit) using four combinations of cumulus schemes. The National Center for Environment Prediction-Department of Energy Reanalysis-2 project utilized gridded data, observed precipitation data from the India Meteorological Department and station data from the Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment were used to evaluate model performance. The seasonal mean circulation patterns and precipitation distribution are well demonstrated by all of the cumulus convection schemes. However, model performance varies using different schemes. Statistical analysis confirms that the root mean square error is reduced by about 2-3 times and the correlation coefficient (CC) increases in the fine resolution (30 km) simulations compared to coarse resolution (90 km) simulations. A statistically significant CC (at a 10 % significance level) is found only in the fine resolution simulations. The Grell cumulus model with a Fritsch-Chappell closure (Grell-FC) is better at simulating seasonal mean patterns and inter-annual variability of two contrasting winter seasons than the other scheme combinations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The performance of RegCM4 for seasonal-scale simulation of winter circulation and associated precipitation over the Western Himalayas (WH) is examined. The model simulates the circulation features and precipitation in three distinct precipitation years reasonably well. It is found that the RMSE decreases and correlation coefficient increases in the precipitation simulations with the increase of model horizontal resolutions. The ETS and POD for the simulated precipitation also indicate that the performance of model is better at 30 km resolution than at 60 and 90 km resolutions. This improvement comes due to better representation of orography in the high-resolution model in which sharp orography gradient in the domain plays an important role in wintertime precipitation processes. A comparison of model-simulated precipitation with observed precipitation at 17 station locations has been carried out. Overall, the results suggest that 30 km model produced better skill in simulating the precipitation over the WH and this model is a useful tool for further regional downscaling studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper deals with cytological studies on 31 populations covering 17 species belonging to 10 genera of Apiaceae from Western Himalayas. The chromosome numbers in the two species as Chaerophyllum capnoides ( n = 11) and Heracleum brunonis ( n = 11), along with additional cytotypes for Pimpinella acuminata ( n = 9) and Sium latijugum ( n = 12) have been reported for the first time on world-wide basis. The genus Pleurospermum, although cytologically worked out earlier from outside India, its species densiflorum ( n = 11) makes first representation of the genus from India. Besides, the chromosome number in Chaerophyllum aromaticum ( n = 11) have been worked out for the first time from India. The course of meiosis varies from normal to abnormal in different populations of Chaerophyllum villosum, Pimpinella achilleifolia and Sium latijugum while abnormal meiotic course has been observed in all the studied populations of Chaerophyllum acuminatum, C. aromaticum, C. capnoides, Pimpinella acuminata, P. diversifolia, Pleurospermum densiflorum and Vicatia coniifolia. Such taxa are marked with meiotic abnormalities in the form of cytomixis, chromatin stickiness, formation of laggards and bridges resulting into abnormal microsporogenesis. The occurrence of structural heterozygosity has been recorded in the Chaerophyllum acuminatum and C. aromaticum. The effect of these abnormalities is clearly seen on the pollen size and fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the winter season (Dec., Jan., and Feb.; DJF) the western Himalaya (WH) receives one-third of its annual precipitation due to Indian winter monsoon (IWM). The IWM is characterized by eastward-moving synoptic weather systems called western disturbances. Seasonal interannual precipitation variability is positively correlated with monthly interannual variabilities. However, it was found that the monthly interannual variabilities differ. The interannual variability for Jan. is negatively correlated with that for Dec. and Feb. Because the entire seasonal interannual variability is in phase with the El Niño Southern Oscillation, it is interesting to investigate such contrasting behavior. Composite analysis based on extreme wet and dry seasons indicates that Dec. and Feb. precipitation variabilities have a high positive (low negative) correlation with eastern (western) equatorial Pacific warming (cooling), whereas Jan. precipitation variability exhibits negligible correlations. Seasonal mid/upper tropospheric cooling over the Himalayas enhances anomalous cyclonic circulation, which along with suppressed convection over the western equatorial Pacific, shifts the 200-hPa subtropical westerly jet southward over the Himalayas. Due to the upper tropospheric anomalous cyclonic circulation, mass transfer favors anticyclone formation at the mid/lower troposphere, which is enhanced in Jan. due to a warmer mid troposphere and hence decreases precipitation compared with Dec. and Feb. Additionally, a weakening of meridional moisture flux transport from the equatorial Indian Ocean to WH is observed in Jan. Further analysis reveals that mid-tropospheric and surface temperatures over WH also play dominant roles, acting as local forcing where the preceding month's surface temperature controls the succeeding month's precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detailed male meiosis, critical morphological observations and distribution pattern of diploid as well as tetraploid cytotypes of the Western Himalayan species, Bupleurum lanceolatum have been evaluated at present. A diploid ( n = 8) cytotype is reported from Kashmir, whereas, both diploid ( n = 8) and tetraploid ( n = 16) cytotypes are available from two districts Kangra and Sirmaur of Himachal Pradesh. Out of these, the tetraploid cytotype makes new addition for the species on a worldwide basis. As per behavior, a tetraploid cytotype is characterized by abnormal meiosis leading to high pollen sterility and size variation of the pollen grains. Morphologically, tetraploids are noted to be luxuriant in comparison to the diploids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During winter months (December, January, February - DJF), the western Himalayas (WH) receive precipitation from eastward moving extratropical cyclones, called western disturbances (WDs) in Indian parlance. Winter precipitation-moisture convergence-evaporation (P-C-E) cycle is analyzed for a period of 22 years (1981-2002: 1980(D)-1981(J, F) to 2001(D)-2002(J, F)) with observed and modelled (RegCM3) climatological estimates over WH. Remarkable model skills have been observed in depicting the hydrological cycle over WH. Although precipitation biases exist, similar spatial precipitation with well marked two maxima is simulated by the model. As season advances, temporal distribution shows higher precipitation in simulation than the observed. However, P-C-E cycle shows similar peaks of moisture convergence and evaporation in daily climatologies though with varying maxima/minima. In the first half of winter, evaporation over WH is mainly driven by ground surface and 2 m air temperature. Lowest temperatures during mid-winter correspond to lowest evaporation to precipitation ratio as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wintertime regional climate studies over the western Himalayas with ICTP-RegCM3 simulations through 22 years has shown systematic biases in precipitation and temperature fields. The model simulated precipitation shows systematically wet bias. In surface temperature simulations, positive and negative biases of 2°-4°C occurred. Experiment without (CONT) and with subBATS (SUB) shows that later scheme performs better, especially for precipitation. Apart from the role of topography and model internal variability, land surface characteristics also have profound impact on these climatic variables. Therefore, in the present study, impacts of land surface characteristics are investigated through cool/wet and warm/dry winter climate by CONT and SUB simulations to assess systematic biases. Since SUB experiment uses detailed land-use classification, systematic positive biases in temperature over higher elevation peaks are markedly reduced. The change has shown reduced excessive precipitation as well. Most of the surface characteristics show that major interplay between topography and western disturbances (WDs) takes place along the foothills rather than over the higher peaks of the western Himalayas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Tropical Ecology is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The role of hormone receptors as a prognostic and therapeutic tool in breast cancer is widely accepted. The frequency of nonreactivity of estrogen and progesterone receptors in breast cancer patients of India is much more common than in the West. This study was conducted with the aim of analysis of steroid receptor status in breast cancer with clinico-pathological characteristics from the northern hilly state of Himachal Pradesh, India located in the region of the Western Himalayas. Fifty five consecutive patients with the diagnosis of breast cancer were included in this study. Detailed clinical and histopathologic data was recorded in all cases. Estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor status was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Chi-square test was used for statistical analysis. On immunohistochemical staining, 34.5% cases proved to be estrogen receptor positive and 36.4% cases progesterone receptor positive. The results in the present study documented low estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor positivity in breast cancer from this region of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Himalayan soils undergo dramatic temporal changes in their microclimatic properties. The soil habitats in the high altitude cold habitats of Himalayas are little explored with respect to bacterial diversity and metabolic potentials of the bacterial species. Soil habitat in Western Himalayas is dominated by the genera of Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter, Bacillus, and Flavobacterium. Strains were found to be diverse in their metabolic potentials to utilize different carbon sources by growing them on media containing 114 different sole carbon sources. Bacillus sp. STL9 was supported by the lowest number (12.3%) of the carbon sources while growth was observed in 73.7% of the carbon sources tested for the Pseudomonas sp. SPS2. Carbohydrates appeared to be preferred carbon sources for these Himalayan isolates followed by amino acids and proteins. These microbes also produced various extra-cellular hydrolytic enzymes having biotechnological potentials, lipase being the one secreted by most strains (85.7%) followed by β-galactosidase (42.8%). Antibiotic resistance profiling for 85 different antibiotics has also been described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An attempt is made to integrate subgrid scale scheme on the work of Dimri and Ganju (Pure Appl Geophys 167:1–24, ) to understand the overall nature of surface heterogeneity and landuse variability along with resolvable finescale micro/meso scale circulation over the Himalayan region, which is having different altitudes and orientations causing prevailing weather conditions to be complex. This region receives large amount of precipitation due to eastward moving low-pressure synoptic weather systems, called western disturbances, during winter season (December, January, February—DJF). Surface heterogeneity and landuse variability of the Himalayan region gives rise to numerous micro/meso scale circulation along with prevailing weather. Therefore, in the present work, a mosaic type parameterization of subgrid scale topography and landuse within a framework of a regional climate model (RegCM3) is extended to study interseasonal variability of surface climate during a winter season (October 1999–March 2000) of the work of Dimri and Ganju (Pure Appl Geophys 167:1–24, ). In this scheme, meteorological variables are disaggregated from the coarse grid to the fine grid, land surface calculations are then performed separately for each subgrid cell, and surface fluxes are calculated and reaggregated onto the coarse grid cell for input to the atmospheric model. By doing so, resolvable finescale structures due to surface heterogeneity and landuse variability at coarse grid are subjected to parameterize at regular finescale surface subgrid. Model simulations show that implementation of subgrid scheme presents more realistic simulation of precipitation and surface air temperature. Influence of topographic elevation and valleys is better represented in the scheme. Overall, RegCM3 with subgrid scheme provides more accurate representation of resolvable finescale atmospheric/surface circulations that results in explaining mean variability in a better way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an adaptive mechanism, hypocotyl dormancy delays emergence of functional leaf until favorable season of growth in Podophyllum hexandrum, an endangered medicinal plant of the western Himalayas. However, upon exposure of the freshly germinated seedlings to favorable temperature (25°C), functional leaves emerged within 20 days. Therefore, we examined regulation mechanisms of growth and development of this alpine plant by temperature under laboratory conditions. The seedlings were exposed to (1) 25°C (temperature prevailing at the time of maximum vegetative growth), (2) 4°C (mean temperature at the onset of winter in its natural habitat), and (3) 10°C (an intermediate temperature). Slackened growth at 4°C was followed by senescence of aerial parts and quiescence of roots and predetermined leaf primordia. Rapid development of leaf primordia at 25°C was associated with increased starch hydrolysis. This was evident from higher α-amylase activity and reducing sugars. These parameters decreased on sudden exposure to 4°C. In contrast, the roots (perennating organs) showed a slight increase (1.36-fold) in α-amylase activity. Growth and development in seedlings growing at 10°C (temperature less adverse than 4°C) were comparatively faster. The content of reducing sugars and α-amylase activity were also higher in all the seedling parts at 10°C as compared to 4°C. This indicated larger requirements for sugar by the seedlings at 10°C. Irrespective of temperature, maximum changes in nitrate and nitrate reductase occurred during the initial 10 days, i.e., when the readily available form of sugars (reducing sugar) was highest. This indicated that a temperature-dependent availability of carbon, but not temperature itself, was an important regulator of uptake and reduction of nitrogen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A key to the management of hillstreams in relation to Fish Species Richness (FSR) and Shannon and Weaver Diversity Index (H') (Shannon and Weaver, 1949. The Mathematical Theory of Communications. Urbana, University of Illinois Press, IL, USA) using a multitude of factors such as altitude, water source, bed gradient, dominant channel materials and habitat type has been proposed on the basis of 10 study sites, belonging to three north Indian rivers namely; Ghaggar, Yamuna and Ganga. The selected streams are located between the altitudes ranging from 380 to 1524?m. It has been observed that high altitude streams having steep gradient, boulder dominated substrate with rapids as the main habitat type had lower FSR (3-4) andH' (0.55-0.99) as compared to hillstreams located in the lower altitudes having gentle gradient, cobble dominated substrate with pools, riffles, runs, rapids and cascades as the main habitats and have high FSR (6-14) andH' (1.67-2.35). Types - A, B and F hillstreams were encountered when the hillstreams are classified after Rosgen (Applied River Morphology, Wildland Hydrology, Co, USA). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]