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Dining establishments are an essential part of the social experience. However, they are often characterized by high levels of background noise, which represents a barrier to effective communication. This particularly affects people suffering from hearing problems. Moreover, noise level exceeding normal conversational levels causes a phenomenon called the Lombard Effect, an involuntary tendency to increase the amount of vocal effort when talking in the presence of noise. Adults over 60 years represent the second largest population in the US and the majority of them suffer from some degree of hearing loss. The primary aim of the current study was to understand the effect of noise on vocal effort and speech intelligibility in a restaurant setting for adults over 60 years old with and without hearing loss. The secondary aim was to evaluate their perception of disturbance in communication and their willingness to spend time and money in a restaurant was affected by the varying levels of background noise. The results of this study showed background noise levels lower than 50 dB(A) will allow senior customers to minimize their vocal effort and to maximize their understanding of conversations, even for those with moderate to severe hearing loss. By setting a limit, it will also keep perceived disturbance low and willingness to spend time and money high among dining patrons.

The taxonomic relationship of Chinese Gelidium tsengii and Gelidium johnstonii was ambiguous. For almost 20 years they have been regarded as distinct taxa and until 2002 G. johnstonii was considered as a misapplied name of G. tsengii. In this study, herbarium specimens that initially attributed to G. tsengii and fresh G. tsengii specimens were used to address the taxonomic issues. In phylogenetic studies, G. tsengii from Dayawan, China, near the type locality of G. tsengii and G. johnstonii from Sonora, Mexico, the type locality of G. johnstonii, formed a monophyletic group with maximum support in rbcL and COI genes analyses, indicating that they were genetically identical. In morphological studies, G. tsengii was similar to G. johnstonii in branching pattern, inner structures and fructiferous organs. Consequently, we considered that semi-circular outline of G. tsengii could no longer be treated as a discrimating feature. G. johnstonii had priority of publication and according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, G. tsengii was proposed as a synonym of G. johnstonii. Gelidium honghaiwanense sp. nov. was described from Guangdong, China on the basis of morphological and molecular data. For vegetative structures, it was characterized by flattened upright frond, regular two-three times branches pinnate or alternate and clavate ultimate branchlets. For reproductive structures, the tetrasporangial sori were in the apical part of branches and the tetrasporangial branchlets were distichously distributed along second order branches. The present study clarified the relationship between G. tsengii and G. johnstonii from Guangdong and added a new Gelidium species to the Chinese algal flora.

A correct characterization of the status and trend of forest condition is essential to support reporting processes at national and international level. An international forest condition monitoring has been implemented in Europe since 1987 under the auspices of the International Co-operative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests (ICP Forests). The monitoring is based on harmonized methodologies, with individual countries being responsible for its implementation. Due to inconsis- tencies and problems in sampling design, however, the ICP Forests network is not able to produce reliable quantitative estimates of forest condition at European and sometimes at country level. This paper proposes (1) a set of requirements for status and change assessment and (2) a harmonized sampling strategy able to provide unbiased and consistent estimators of forest condition parameters and of their changes at both country and European level. Under the assumption that a common definition of forest holds among European countries, monitoring objectives, parameters of concern and accuracy indexes are stated. On the basis of fixed-area plot sampling performed independently in each country, an unbiased and consistent estimator of forest defoliation indexes is obtained at both country and European level, together with conservative estimators of their sampling variance and power in the detection of changes. The strategy adopts a probabilistic sampling scheme based on fixed-area plots selected by means of systematic or stratified schemes. Operative guidelines for its application are provided. L'articolo è diponibile sul sito dell'editore www.springerlink.com

Twenty-nine Fusarium isolates, representing three new taxa originated by Nirenberg from F. sambucinum Fuckel sensu lato, namely: F. sambucinum Fuckel sensu stricto, F. venenotum Nirenb., and F. torulosum (Berk.Curt.) Nirenb., were tested for in vitro production of toxic secondary metabolites on autoclaved corn kernels. F. sambucinum sensu stricto was able to produce type A trichothecenes and enniatin B (EB). In particular, amongst the 14 isolates tested, 5 produced only diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) (up to 700 micrograms/g); 1 produced only neosolaniol (NEOS) (250 micrograms/g); 2 produced T-2 toxin (T-2) + NEOS (up to 175 and 150 micrograms/g, respectively); 1 produced NEOS + DAS (300 and 100 micrograms/g, respectively); and 5 produced DAS + EB (up to 500 and 140 micrograms/g, respectively). All six isolates of F. venenotum were able to produce only DAS (up to 100 micrograms/g). F. torulosum produced no trichothecenes, but four out of nine tested isolates were able to produce EB (up to 140 micrograms/g). Zearalenones and type B trichothecenes were not found. The toxicity of the culture extracts towards Artemia salina L. was correlated in general with the occurrence of the above toxins, except for some F. torulosum strains. However, the lack of correlation between the amounts of toxins recovered and toxic activity observed in the Geotrichum candidum Link ex Pers. and A. salina assays suggested the presence of unknown toxic compounds.

The Fusarium species predominantly found associated with Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat and other small-grain cereals all over Europe are F. graminearum, F. avenaceum and F. culmorum. Among the less frequently encountered species are several others which are less pathogenic or opportunistic, but also toxigenic. These include F. poae, F. cerealis, F. equiseti, F. sporotrichioides, F. tricinctum and, to a lesser extent, F. acuminatum, F. subglutinans, F. solani, F. oxysporum, F. verticillioides, F. semitectum and F. proliferatum. The species profile of FHB is due to several factors, primarily climatic conditions, particularly rain and the temperature at flowering stage, but also agronomic factors, such as soil cultivation, nitrogen fertilization, fungicides, crop rotation, and host genotype. The most frequently encountered Fusarium mycotoxins in FHB in Europe has proved to be deoxynivalenol and zearalenone produced by F. graminearum and F. culmorum, with the former more common in southern (warmer) and the latter in northern (colder) European areas. Nivalenol was usually found associated with deoxynivalenol and its derivatives (mono-acetyldeoxynivalenols), together with fusarenone-X, formed by F. graminearum, F. cerealis, F. culmorum and, in northern areas, by F. poae. Moreover, from central to northern European countries, moniliformin has been consistently reported, as a consequence of the widespread distribution of F. avenaceum, whereas the occurrence of T-2 toxin derivatives, such as T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin, and diacetoxyscirpenol have been recorded in conjunction with sporadic epidemics of F. sporotrichioides and F. poae. Finally, beauvericin and various enniatins have recently been found in Finnish wheat colonized by F. avenaceum and F. poae.

Banana fruits exhibiting signs of decay were collected from markets in the United States and Italy. Fungi isolated from the lesions on the banana fruits wereFusarium moniliforme, F subglutinans, andF. semitectum var.majus. When the fungal strains were cultivated on maize kernels, the cultures did not produce zearalenone (ZON), zearalenols (á-, â-ZOH), and trichothecenes [deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-AcDON), T-2 toxin (T-2), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS)]. Fumonisins and fusarin C (FUS-C) were not detected naturally nor in bananas purchased in the U.S. and artificially infected withFusarium. Moniliformin (M) (up to 267 mg/kg) was detected in maize kernel cultures ofF. subglutinans from bananas. No mycotoxins were detected in naturally infected fruits. Although no mycotoxins were detected in the extracts from corn cultures ofF. semitectum var.majus, the extracts were toxic to brine shrimp and mice.

Forty-three strains of Fusarium moniliforme isolated from infected maize and sorghum plants in Italy were assayed for their ability to produce fertile crosses with "A" and "F" mating population tester strains, in relation to their ability to produce fumonisins on maize substrate. Most of the strains isolated from maize (ear and stalk rot and maize-based feed), producing fumonisin B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) (up to 4,100 and 855 mg/kg, respectively), belonged to the "A" mating population. All of the strains isolated from sorghum belonged to the "F" mating population and produced little or no FB1 and FB2. This is the first report of the occurrence of mating population "F" in Europe. Our data on strains from Italy are consistent with previous studies from the United States that found significant differences in sexual fertility and fumonisin production between strains from maize and sorghum.

Fusarium strain Fn-2B, a trichothecene producingFusarium strain, first reported asF. nivale but with a very controversial identification, was reexamined genetically by nucleotide sequencing from a highly variable region of the large subunit (25-28S) rRNA (D2 region, ca. 220 nucleotides), and compared to the same region from species it was presumed to belong, in order to assess its phylogenetic affinity.Fusarium strain Fn-2B proved to be more closely related toF. poae NRRL-13637 showing only one heteromorphic site. In comparison to other fungal strains, Fn-2B showed 3,11, and 34 bases that differ fromF. sporotrichioides NRRL-3299,F. triclnctum NRRL-13636 andMicrodochium nivale NRRL-13934, respectively. This phylogenetic affinity between Fusarium strain Fn-2B and F. poae is well correlates with the production of trichothecene mycotoxins by the species.

The toxicity of twenty-fourFusarium isolates was evaluated towards larvae ofGalleria mellonella by the antlfeedant activity of the autoclaved fungal culture incorporated into insect diet. Culturesof isolates belonging to F.sporotrichioldes, F. compactum andF. sambucinum, well known as capable to synthesize trichothecenes, showed high antifeedant activity (ca 60-70%); whereas controversial activity was showed byF. equiseti, F. proliferatum andF. solani cultures, and not significant activity was showed byF. oxysporum cultures. The G.mellonella larvae bioassay is suggested as a reliable sensitive Insectbioassay for screening fungal toxicity.

Background Plant biodiversity studies have been performed in the Migliarino-San Rossore-Massaciuccoli Regional Park in Tuscany (Italy) within the framework of the European project LIFE08 NAT/IT/342.This project aims at developing a quick monitoring index (QMI) to rapidly assess the potential risk generated by transgenic plants in characterized ecosystems or biotopes. For this reason test areas have been selected inside the protected area to evaluate plant (weeds and trees), animal, and soil microoganisms biodiversity. The proximity of the selected test area to cropped surfaces where Genetically Modified Plants (GMPs) might be cultivated has been taken into account. GMPs could spread pollen and contaminate natural populations. To avoid this risk, an efficient monitoring system is required taking into account genetic diversity and breeding study. As far as tree biodiversity concern, Populus species were identified in the test areas. Two populations of Populus present into two different ecosystems (forest and wetland areas) were examined together with two cultivated varieties. The two ecosystems were characterized for the vegetation. Nuclear microsatellites were used to evaluate genetic diversity of poplar populations and level of breeding between natural and cultivated Populus. In addition the insect populations present on male and female poplars during flowering period have been studied.

NRRL-13820 and NRRL-13852 are reported to be two atypicalFusarium graminearum strains type A trichothecene producers [T-2 toxin (T-2) and diacetoxy-scirpenol (DAS)]. These two strains were reexamined by morphological, genetical (DNA / DNA relatedness) and toxicological techniques and compared with 28 wildF graminearum isolates obtained from corn in Italy and the USA. The isolate NRRL-13820 was morphologically confirmed as a typical isolate ofF graminearum, while the isolate NRRL-13852 showed some peculiar characteristics. Nuclear DNA comparison between NRRL-13820 and NRRL-13852 displayed 49% similarity and showed 94 % and 44 % relatedness, respectively, when compared withF graminearum NRRL-13833, which is a well assessed type B trichothecene producer [deoxynivalenol (DON) and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol]. NRRL-13820, NRRL-13852, and NRRL-13833, as well as the 28 wild isolates, were not able to synthesize T-2, HT-2 nor DAS. Finally, NRRL-13820 and NRRL-13833, but not NRRL-13852, were able to produce DON (120 and 40/μg/g, respectively). The data support the concept that the production of examined type A trichothecenes is very rare inF graminearum.

Samples of wheat naturally infected in the field byFusarium culmorum (W.G.Sm.) Sacc. andFusarium graminearum Schwabe were analyzed for deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, and zearalenone. No zearalenone was detected at levels higher than 0.5mg/kg. Deoxynivalenol was present in 100% and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol in 80% of the examined samples at levels of 0.21 to 30.4 mg/kg and 0.54 to 29.54 mg/kg, respectively. The mycotoxin levels in the chaff were 5 to 50 times higher than in the kernels. This is the first report on natural occurrence of 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol in wheat. This toxin, in addition to deoxynivalenol, was highly correlated with wheat head fusariosis. These findings suggest that more attention should be given to the occurrence of 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol in cereal grains during the growth as well as during storage.

The effect of ouabain (15 microgram/kg) on subepicardial and sub-endocardial blood flow, oxygenation, and small-vessel blood content was studied in anesthetized open chest rabbits with hearts subjected to acute coronary occlusion. 10 minutes after occlusion, blood flow was 48% lower than in the control region. Ouabain lowered blood flow significantly in the non-occluded region and insignificantly in the occluded area. Small-vessel blood content, a measure of open capillary density, was unaffected by occlusion or ouabain. After occlusion, relative tissue PO2 fell to a greater extent in the affected subendocardium than the affected subepicardium. Ouabain, therefore, appears to be well tolerated in both the control and ischemic regions in terms of oxygen supply and consumption.

A highly toxic strain ofFusarium sporotrichioides Sherb. (P-11) isolated from wheat in Poland produced on rice culture up to 11 trichothecenes, which are: T-2 toxin (750 ppm), neosolaniol (300 ppm), HT-2 toxin (75 ppm), acetyl T-2 toxin (35ppm), 3'-hydroxy-T-2 (20ppm), T-2 triol (12.5ppm), 3'-hydroxy-HT-2 (1.2ppm), 4-acetoxy-T-2 tetraol (1.1 ppm), 15-acetoxy-T-2 tetraol (0.65 ppm), 8-acetoxy-T-2 tetraol (0.45 ppm), and T-2 tetraol (0.2 ppm). The presence of most of these trichothecenes, including the 3'-hydroxy-derivatives, in the excreta of animals treated with T-2 toxin indicates the existence of some correlation between T-2 toxin metabolism in animals and microorganisms, respectively.

Surveys of corn (infected plants and commercial kernels) for Fusarium species and their mycotoxins were carried out on samples collected all over Italy and from some European and mediterranean countries. Investigations on samples of corn stalk and ear rot standing in the field, mainly collected in southern Italy, proved to be contaminated with zearalenone (ZON), zearalenols (ZOL), and deoxynivalenol (DON). The Fusarium species most frequently isolated, and their recorded toxigenic capability (in parentheses), were: F. moniliforme; F. culmorum (ZON, ZOL, DON, 3AcDON); F. equiseti (ZON, ZOL); and F. proliferatum (MF). Along with these species, F. graminearum group 2 (ZON, DON and/or 3AcDON or 15AcDON); F. chlamydosporum; F. acuminatum (type-A trichothecene derivatives); and F. semitectum were often found to be associated. F. heterosporum (ZON, ZOL); F. solani; F. crookwellense (ZON, ZOL, FUS, NIV); F. oxysporum (MF); F. avenaceum (MF); F. sporotrichioides (T-2 toxin and derivatives); and F. poae (DAS, MAS) were occasionally isolated.

Separation and determination ofFusarium trichothecenes: nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, fusarenone and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, were carried out by highperformance liquid chromatography with UV detection, and methanol—water (30/70) as mobile-phase on Lichrosorb RP-18 column. Detection limits were 2, 3, 3 and 5ng per injection of nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, fusarenone and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, respectively. The method appears to be adequate for detection of the above trichothecenes in contaminated corn and rice as well as in cultures ofFusarium spp. A preliminary TLC purification was necessary for detection of fusarenone in corn.