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The edible mushroom Volvariella volvacea or straw mushroom is extensively cultivated throughout the year in countries with warm and humid climates. It has the potential for integration into agroforestry food production systems and support food security strategies via climate- and environmental-friendly agriculture, without adversely affecting forest ecosystems. This study aims to ascertain the effect of microclimate on the production of V. volvacea by adapting outdoor cultivation methods to logged lowland dipterocarp forests, along with the application of oil palm wastes as a growing substrate. The study measured a range of microclimatic variables including bed temperature and humidity, as well as bed orientation. Freshly processed planting material from oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) was partially composted using conventional open-air composting method and then used as a growing substrate. V. volvacea was cultivated on twenty planting beds composed of EFB, with north–south and east–west orientations, over 4 replication periods, between November 2017 and May 2019, and mushroom production was measured. The analysis found that bed humidity, bed temperature, harvesting week, harvesting month, and replication significantly affected V. volvacea production, while bed pH and orientation did not affect production. Varying temperature and humidity particularly during incubation, for mycelial growth and fruiting body development, as well as harvesting period, are important factors affecting mushroom production. Our study showed that lowland dipterocarp forest provide an ideal setting for cultivating edible mushrooms. Further investigation should be conducted to ascertain the potential for cultivating V. volvacea in other tropical agroforestry contexts, and to assess its potential to mitigate climate change and contribute to a circular economy through recycling oil palm wastes.

Morchella esculenta (M. esculenta) is a delicious edible mushroom prized for its special flavor and strong health promoting abilities. Several bioactive ingredients including polysaccharides, polyphenolic compounds, proteins, and protein hydrolysates all contribute to the biological activities of M. esculenta. Different polysaccharides could be extracted and purified depending on the extraction methods and M. esculenta studied. Monosaccharide composition of M. esculenta polysaccharides (MEP) generally includes mannose, galactose, and glucose, etc. MEP possess multiple bioactivities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammation, immunoregulation, hypoglycemic activity, atherosclerosis prevention and antitumor ability. Other components like polyphenols, protein hydrolysates, and several crude extracts are also reported with strong bioactivities. In terms of potential applications of M. esculenta and its metabolites as nutritional supplements and drug supplements, this review aims to comprehensively summarize the structural characteristics, biological activities, research progress, and research trends of the active ingredients produced by M. esculenta. Among the various biological activities, the substances extracted from both natural collected and submerged fermented M. esculenta are promising for antioxidants, immunomodulation, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory applications. However, further researches on the extraction conditions and chemical structure of bioactive compounds produced by M. esculenta still need investigations.

Peptones are one of the most expensive components of culture media. This study was performed to produce exopolysaccharide (EPS) and mycelial biomass from the edible mushroom Lentinus edodes by using the peptone prepared from waste sheep wool. Wool peptone I (WPI) was prepared by HCl hydrolysis and NaOH neutralization and wool peptone II (WPII) by NaOH hydrolysis and HCl neutralization. The efficiency of wool peptones in EPS and mycelia production was compared with commercial tryptone peptone (TP) and proteose peptone (PP). Protein contents of TP, PP, WPI, and WPII were measured as 83.4, 83.7, 53.6, and 66.7 g/100 g, and their ash contents as 7.4, 10.3, 41.2, and 30.4 g/100 g, respectively. Compared to TP and PP, WPI and WPII were found to be richer in minerals, especially Na and Cl. At the optimal peptone concentration, relatively higher mycelial biomass concentrations were achieved in the presence of commercial peptones. Conversely, wool peptones, especially WPI, were found to be more favorable for EPS synthesis. In WPI, WPII, PP, and TP-based cultures, the maximum concentrations of produced EPS were determined as 0.55, 0.41, 0.35, and 0.21 g/L, respectively. It was determined that EPS samples produced in the presence of wool peptones had lower molecular weight but higher antibacterial activity. This is the first report on usability of wool protein hydrolysate as peptone source for production of mycelial biomass and polysaccharides from mushrooms including L. edodes.

Fruiting body development in Agaricomycetes represents the most complex and unclear process in the fungi. Mating type pathways (A and B) and transcription factors are important regulators in the sexual development of mushrooms. It is known that clampless1 (clp1) is an additional gene that participate under the homeodomain (HD) genes in the matA pathway and clp1 inactivation blocks clamps formation in Coprinopsis cinerea. In this study we identified and analyzed a homologous Fvclp1 gene in the edible mushroom Flammulina velutipes. The coding sequence of the Fvclp1 was 1011 bp without intron interruption, encoding a protein of 336 amino acids. To exhibit the role of Fvclp1 in clamp development and fruiting body formation, knockdown and overexpression mutants were prepared. No significant difference was observed in the monokaryotic hyphal morphology of overexpression and knockdown transformants. In the dikaryotic hyphae from the compatible crossings between the wild-type L22 strain and Fvclp1 knockdown or overexpression mutants, clamp connections developed. However, knockdown mutants could generate fewer fruiting bodies than the wild-type strain. On the contrary, reduced mycelial growth rate but improved fruiting ability was observed in the dikaryotic Fvclp1 overexpression mutants as compared to the wild-type strain. These results indicate that Fvclp1 is necessary and actively involved in fruiting body development in F. velutipes. Overall, these findings suggest that further studies on the function of Fvclp1 would advance our understanding of sexual reproduction and fruiting body development in edible mushrooms.

Pleurotus flabellatus is an edible mushroom possessing high nutritive as well as medicinal values. This study specifically investigated the antimicrobial properties of the methanol extract of P. flabellatus. Agar well diffusion and INT colorimetric assay methodologies were used to assess the antimicrobial activity of the extract against selected test pathogenic microorganisms viz. Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Proteus vulgaris NCIM 5266, Shigella flexeneri NCIM 5265, Proteus mirabilis NCIM 2300, Serratia marcescens NCIM 2078 and Moraxella catarrhalis NCIM 2795. Preliminary mycochemical screening revealed the presence of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, alkaloids, phenols, carbohydrates, proteins, aminoacids, phlobatamins, terpenes and saponins, etc. which is responsible for antimicrobial activity. The thin-layer chromatography (TLC) eluted out 5 different compounds from the spot (extract) with solvent system chloroform + methanol (9.5:0.5) when visualized in UV, Iodine chamber and with sprayed acidified vanillin solution (0.1 g vanillin:28 ml methanol:1 ml sulphuric acid). The extract showed a mean zone of growth inhibition of 10.3 ± 0.3 to 17.6 ± 0.3 mm against the test pathogens. The methanol extracts showed bactericidal activity against all the test pathogens at MIC values of 26.03–83.33 mg/ml. Whereas the MBC values for methanol extract of P. flabellatus against all pathogens were recorded as 62.5–104.16 mg/ml. S. aureus which was resistant to commercial antibiotic penicillin gave highest antimicrobial activity (17.6 ± 0.3 mm) for methanol extract in comparison to other test pathogens. Serratia marcescens showed lowest antimicrobial activity with zone of inhibition 10.3 ± 0.3 mm. Among all the test pathogens, due to low MIC value of Proteus mirabilis, it showed higher total antibacterial Activity (TAA). Methanol extracts of P. flabellatus exhibited broad-spectrum of antimicrobial activity against test pathogens probably due to presence of several bioactive compounds that may serve as potential antimicrobial agents.

Wild edible mushrooms are very popular for both their flavors and nutritional values. However, some mushroom species can be harmful to human health as they accumulate some elements in excessive amounts. The aim of this study was to determine the concentrations of Al, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, P, Se, and Zn of some wild edible (Agaricus arvensis, A. bitorquis, A. sylvaticus, Amanita vaginata, Armillaria mellea, Clavariadelphus pistillaris, Clitocybe nebularis, Clitopilus prunulus, Hygrophorus marzuolus, H. russula, Lactarius volemus, Lycoperdon molle, and Macrolepiota mastoidea) and non-edible mushroom species (A. citrina, Auricularia mesenterica, Chanterellus melanoxeros, Chondrostereum purpureum, Clathrus ruber, L. controversus, L. helvus, and L. zonarius) collected from Belgrad forest (Istanbul, Turkey). Daily intakes of element (DIE) and health risk index (HRI) values of the edible mushroom species were also calculated. The concentrations of the elements in question were determined to be in the ranges of 9.7-556.8, 2.5-2226.7, 0.06-2.52, 0.03-13.17, 3.74-100.19, 13.3-507.4, 2635.0-28614.0, 493.0-2412.0, 6.97-3150.73, 0.29-13.26, 0.38-3.67, and 9.1-293.8 mg/kg, respectively. The Cd concentration of H. russula (DIE: 1.08, HRI: 1.08), Cr concentration of C. nebularis (DIE: 5.64, HRI: 1.88), and the Cu concentration of M. mastoidea (DIE: 42.94, HRI: 1.07) were above the reference values. The results showed that the long-term consumption of H. russula, C. nebularis, and M. mastoidea collected from Belgrad forest can have a negative impact on human health. Therefore, it was concluded that the element concentrations of edible wild mushrooms in this region should be examined periodically.

Wild mushrooms represent one of the most fascinating sources of nutraceuticals as they are enriched with high quality carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fibers as well as secondary metabolites which are responsible for their incredible therapeutic potential. The present study aimed to analyze the chemical profile and antioxidative properties of infusion, decoction and hydro alcoholic extracts of two edible mushroom species; Auricularia delicata and Auricularia mesenterica. Results indicated that, hydro alcoholic extract of A. delicata contained the highest phenol content than A. mesenterica. Furthermore, the extract was also found to have a high quantity of flavonoids and ascorbic acids which are categorized as well known antioxidant components of mushrooms. All the above mentioned extracts had a strong dose dependent ability to scavenge free radicals. Compared to infusion and decoction, hydro alcoholic fractions provide better results in bioactivity assays and phytochemical quantity suggesting mixture of water and alcohol facilitates maximum extraction of phytochemicals rather than only water based extraction. Overall the investigation indicates that both these two mushrooms have potential to serve as a natural source of antioxidant compounds which can be helpful to reduce oxidative stress and its related disorders.

In recent years, the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been projected as an alternative to traditional antibiotics for their superior antimicrobial properties and significant inhibition of the biofilm formation. Particularly, it is found that the effectiveness of AgNPs varies greatly with the biomaterial used in their synthesis. Mushrooms are natural resources for excellent antioxidants and bioactive compounds. Nevertheless, there are few reports on the application of mushrooms in AgNPs biosynthesis. In this study, AgNPs were successfully synthesized using Flammulina velutipes extract as reductants and stabilizing agents. The following analyses of UV-visible spectroscopy showed typical absorbance peak at 450 nm. Transmission electron microscope analysis indicated that the prepared AgNPs were monodispersed spheres with an average size of approximately 22 nm. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the face-centered cubic (fcc) crystalline structure of metallic silver. Furthermore, the synthesized AgNPs exhibited high stability and antibacterial activities against 6 aquatic pathogens. A subsequent challenge experiment showed that the prepared AgNPs significantly reduced the mortality rate of Ruditapes philippinarum clam infected with Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Notably, AgNPs treatment could inhibit the biofilm formation of the pathogen, indicating that the extracellular synthesis of AgNPs using mushroom can be developed into a novel effective antimicrobial agent to overcome the multidrug-resistant microorganisms in aquaculture. This study will open a new way for edible mushroom processing and wide application in aquaculture.

The titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NPs) were synthesized by the aqueous extract from P. djamor. The UV–Vis spectrum of TiO2NPs showed maximum absorption at 345 nm and the XRD pattern reflects peaks at 2θ value of 27.51°, 36.16°, 41.31°, 54.37°, 56.68°, 62.80° and 69.04° can be indexed to the (110), (101), (111), (211), (220), (204) and (301) were confirm the presence of TiO2NPs. The FT-IR spectrum of TiO2NPs showed a peak at 3432, 1631, 1400, 1109, and 619 cm−1. The SEM and HRTEM analysis revealed the spherical shape size and EDAX pattern confirmed the purity of TiO2NPs. The particle size of TiO2NPs found to be 31 nm and the zeta potential showed 16.4mV. Antibacterial activity TiO2NPs recorded the highest zone of inhibition 33 ± 0.2 mm, 32 ± 0.4 mm and 32 ± 0.1 mm against P. fluorescens, S. aureus and C. diphtheriae. Further, the anticancer activity of TiO2NPs showed 9.08–64.71% at 6.25–100 µg/ml concentration against A549 cancer cells. The larvicidal activities of TiO2 NPs on IVth instar larvae of Ae. aegypti and Cx quinquefasciatus results showed LC50 (5.88 and 4.84 mg/l) and LC90 (22.80 and 19.33 mg/l) in better effect. The multi biological activity of TiO2NPs was utilized in future pharmacological application.

Wild edible mushrooms are rich in nutritions and popular among people, but wild edible mushrooms easily accumulate potentially harmful trace elements, and excessive intake will harm health. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential health hazards of long-term intake of wild edible mushrooms in Yunnan Province, China. The concentrations of trace element (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, Ni, and Zn) in 19 species of wild edible mushrooms in Yunnan Province were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Further processing of the data, the potential health risk assessments of consumers were evaluated by the target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR), respectively. Results showed that concentrations of trace element in wild edible mushrooms decreased in the order of Zn > Cu > As > Ni > Cr > Cd > Pb > Hg. Compared with the maximum standard by the WHO/China, the averages of As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Zn were significantly greater than the standard. Among the tested wild edible mushrooms, HI values of Leccinum crocipodium, Thelephora ganbajun, Lactarius luteolus, Tricholoma matsutake, and Polyporus ellisii were more than 1. Thus, Leccinum crocipodium, Thelephora ganbajun, Lactarius luteolus, Tricholoma matsutake, and Polyporus ellisii are the main sources of risk. The value of THQ in ascending order was as follows: Pb (0.11) < Cd (0.75) < As (4.27) < Hg (6.87). Thus, Hg are the primary sources of health risk in the wild edible mushrooms in Yunnan Province. ILCR(As) values of Thelephora ganbajun, Tricholoma matsutake, Laccaria amethystea, and Polyporus ellisii were more than 10-4, these four samples are the primary sources of health risk. The mean values of ILCR for As in wild mushroom were 1.01 × 10-4. The results suggest that there was potential health risk to the consumer associated with the long-term consumption of wild edible mushrooms collected from Yunnan Province. We propose that the concentrations of trace element should be periodically monitored in wild edible mushrooms.

Wild edible mushrooms serve as a garnish that can be taken as routine health food or as functional food. They are enriched with myriad nutrients and bioactive compounds that can be developed into food supplements, hence conferring anti-diabetic, cardiovascular and immune-modulating properties. In the present investigation, four wild edible mushroom species viz., Apioperdon pyriforme, Helvella elastica, Morchella conica and Rhizopogon luteolus collected from different locations of Jammu and Kashmir were examined for their nutritional composition. Among these, Morchella conica revealed maximum protein (24.5 g/100 g) and crude fibre (4.8%). While the dried sporocarps of Rhizopogon luteolus possessed maximum total phenolic content (12.30 mg/g), Other components including total ascorbic acid content (1.71 mg/g) and total flavonoid content (0.78 mg/g) were present in maximum proportion in fruit bodies of Rhizopogon luteolus and Helvella elastica, respectively. Furthermore, considering the fact that wild mushrooms have good bioaccumulation potential, these wild edible mushrooms were also assessed for their mineral contents such as Cu, Fe, Zn and Mg. Amongst these, Fe was found present in higher concentration ranging from 165.5–547 ppm followed by Zn (22.2–84 ppm) and Mg (22.4–55.5 ppm). Concentration of copper was found to be lowest in the investigated wild edible mushrooms (23.1–44.5 ppm). However, no copper was detected in Rhizopogon luteolus. The present study demonstrates that the investigated mushrooms are rich in nutrients and essential minerals specifying that they may be further used as functional elements in the composition of innovative food products.

Reactive Blue-19 is one of the most important synthetic dyes, which is used in the different industrial processes, especially for textile industry. Due to its fused aromatic structure, it is regarded as a toxic organic pollutant in wastewater. In the present study, the decolorization activity of Boletus edulis laccase immobilized onto rice husks for Reactive Blue-19 was examined. Boletus edulis, an edible mushroom, was used as a laccase source for the first time. Laccase was immobilized onto the rice husks which are inexpensive support having lignocellulose structure by using a simple method. The operating conditions of immobilized laccase were optimized for dye decolorization, and the decolorization activity of immobilized laccase was determined to be 91% for Reactive Blue-19 with initial concentration of 100 mg/L kept in 0.1 M of citrate phosphate buffer solution (pH 3.5) for 1 h at 25 °C. The decolorization of Reactive Blue-19 catalyzed by immobilized laccase was monitored by ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy analysis. The results of reusing studies showed that immobilized laccase retains approximately 50% of its initial decolorization activity after 9 cycles. Also, the effects of some auxiliary chemicals and metal ions found in textile wastewaters were investigated for decolorization process. In the reaction medium, containing 10 mM Fe2+ and 10 mM Tween 80, the decolorization activity decreased to 76% and 80.8%, respectively. The remarkable decolorization activity of immobilized laccase showed that it has a high potential for the treatment of textile wastewaters.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the concentration of PAHs and health risk in edible mushrooms using magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method. Based on the results, the concentration of total PAHs was in the range from 0.82 to 6.25 µg/kg (with the means of 3.85 ± 0.24 µg/kg). In this study, acenaphthylene (Ace) had the maximum mean level in mushroom samples (0.84 ± 0.19 μg/kg) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), acenaphthene (Ac), phenanthrene (Pa), dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DahA), benzo(a)anthracene (BaA), fluoranthene (Fl), indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IP) and benzo[g,h,i]perylene (BgP) had minimum mean level (non-detected). The highest mean values of total PAHs (4.88 ± 0.30 μg/kg) was detected in grilled mushroom samples and lowest mean of total PAHs (2.77 ± 0.04 μg/kg) was detected in raw mushroom samples. The concentration of contamination in edible mushrooms was raw grilled, respectively. Furthermore, heat map visualization was applied to evaluate the relationship between the quantity and type of 16 PAHs in edible mushroom samples. Ultimately, the incremental lifetime cancer risk in edible mushrooms for adults and children was 6.85E-08 and 3.47E-07, respectively, which was lower than the acceptable risk limit (10–6) and all of the edible mushrooms sold in Tehran were considered safe for consumers.

The study was aimed at investigating the biologically active compounds in Pleurotus sajor-caju wild edible mushroom and its potential antioxidant and antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella typhi (Accession No. KT037135). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis exposed the presence of bioactive components. The antioxidant properties were evaluated using the free radical scavenging method 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). The methanolic extract of the P. sajor-caju was exhibited 67.42 ± 0.25% of antioxidant activity according to the DPPH. The bactericidal activity was evaluated and the results showed that the S. typhi growth was considerably decreased in a dose-dependent approach. Thus, it is recommended that the methanolic extract of the P. sajor-caju could be a lead drug and chosen to very good antioxidant activity and also effectively control the MDR S. typhi.

The huge land areas in China provide highly diverse habitats for macrofungi. Of these macrofungi, many are directly related to people’s daily life and have been utilized by ancient Chinese for at least 6800 years. In this study, we evaluate the current known resource diversity of Chinese macrofungi. A total of 1662 taxa are summarized, and all species names and their authorities have been checked and corrected according to authentic mycological databases. Among the 1662 taxa, 1020, 692, and 480 are considered to be edible, medicinal and poisonous mushrooms, respectively. A few of edible macrofungi in China are commonly used for commercial production. All known medicinal functions are labeled for medicinal species. The most common medicinal functions possessed by Chinese macrofungi are antitumor or anticancer, followed by antioxidant and antimicrobial. A total of 277 Chinese macrofungi are edible simultaneously with certain medicinal functions and without known toxicity. These species could be treated as “Gold Mushrooms”. Contrarily, 193 edible and/or medicinal species are also recognized as poisonous mushrooms. To avoid poisoning caused by these species, ingestion either in a proper way or in small amounts is important. However, the mycotoxins metabolized by these poisonous species could be a huge wealth of natural products yet to be explored. How to utilize these Chinese macrofungal resources is a critical to benefit humans worldwide.

The present study was carried out to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using extracts of wild edible mushroom, Pleurotus giganteus, and to characterize the synthesized AgNPs and also to evaluate the synthesized AgNPs for antimicrobial and α-amylase inhibitory activity. Green synthesized AgNPs were characterized by UV–Vis spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Atomic force microscopy (AFM), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Antibacterial activity of AgNPs was studied by disc diffusion method along with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and α-amylase inhibition assay of AgNPs were also studied. UV–Vis spectra of reaction mixture of AgNPs exhibited surface plasmon resonance peak around at 420 nm. FTIR study revealed that mainly carboxyl, hydroxyl, and amine functional groups were present in a mushroom extract which mainly reduced Ag+ to Ag0. AFM, TEM, SEM, SAED, and XRD pattern analysis supported that synthesized AgNPs were mostly spherical shaped within average size 2–20 nm and crystalline in nature. Biosynthesized AgNPs showed more antibacterial potentiality against Gram (–) bacteria. MIC of green synthesized AgNPs were found against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus as 12, 10, 14, and 15 μg/ml, respectively. α-Amylase inhibition assay of green synthesized AgNPs revealed that percent inhibition of α-amylase decreased with increasing concentration of green synthesized AgNPs. Wild edible mushroom P. giganteus can be used as a source of reducing and capping agents of spherical metallic silver nanoparticles which offers potential medicinal properties.

Lactarius sanguifluus is part of the diverse mycological heritage in the Koudiat Taifour forest (a site of biological and ecological interest in the northern region of Morocco), although this fungus is in danger of extinction in this forest. The main objective of the research reported here was to perform an advanced chemical analysis of a methanolic extract from L. sanguifluus and to investigate its biological activities. Spectrophotometric determination of the chemical compounds present in the extract showed that this fungus contains significant amounts of phenolics and flavonoids [18.71–18.81 mg GAE per g of dry methanolic extract (dme)], moderate quantities of ascorbic acid and tannins [3.50–3.86 mg/g of dry weight (dw)], and low levels of β-carotene and lycopene (0.11–0.10 mg/g dme). The phenolic compounds were identified and quantified via LC–MS, and the results showed that p-hydroxybenzoic acid (134.10 µg/g dw) and paraben acid (85.35 µg/g dw) were the main phenolic compounds in the sample. GC–MS analysis of the methanol extract led to the identification of more than 77 chemical compounds in the sample, which were categorized into five main groups: sugars (48.15%), fatty acids (20.66%), amino acids (11.92%), organic acids (9.30%), and alcohols (8.42%). The antioxidant activity of the fungal methanol extract was demonstrated using three methods: the DPPH assay (IC50: 2.045 mg/ml), the β-carotene bleaching test (IC50: 0.56 mg/ml), and the ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP; RC50: 0.85 mg/ml). The antimicrobial activity was evaluated using microdilution methods. Antifungal susceptibility tests indicated that the extract was able to inhibit the growth of five fungal pathogen species. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) ranged from 1 to 16 mg/ml for Epidermophyton floccosum, Trichophyton rubrum, and Microsporum canis, and from 21 to 64 mg/ml for Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus. Likewise, antibacterial tests showed that the extract inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus at concentrations ranging from 21 to 64 mg/ml for the MIC and at 64 mg/ml for the MFC. Considering their nutritional and nutraceutical value, fruiting bodies of L. sanguifluus and extracts from them could be used as nutritional supplements and as natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents in food preservation and human health.

BackgroundEdible mushroom fruiting bodies and their mycelia have become attractive functional foods. Mushroom mycelia have been investigated for their potential food applications. Here, soybeans were fermented using medical mushroom mycelia fromGanoderma lucidum,Hericium erinaceus, andHericium ramosumto develop novel functional food materials for human health.ResultsWild mushroom fruiting bodies were collected from nature to isolate their mycelia. Soybeans were fermented using mushroom mycelia for 4 weeks. The antioxidant activity of fermented soybeans was analysed, and fermented soybean compounds were determined using HPLC and LC/MS analysis. Antioxidant and alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activities of fermented soybean mycelia were more potent than the control group. The volume and type of isoflavones significantly differed between soybean fermentation byGanoderma lucidum,Hericium erinaceus,andHericium ramosummycelia, based on HPLC and LC/MS analysis.ConclusionWe used mushroom mycelia to uncover new information regarding fermented soybean. Soybean fermentation using mushroom mycelia could be useful as a novel bioactive food material or nutritional supplement.

The present investigation was conducted to synthesize and characterize silver nanoparticles using wild edible mushroom extract of Lentinus tuber-regium. The current investigation also aims to determine antimicrobial and α-amylase inhibitory activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). UV–Visible spectrophotometer study indicated that the surface plasmon resonance peak of reaction of AgNPs was around at 433 nm which confirmed the formation of AgNPs. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis confirms that carboxyl functional groups in mushroom extract are mainly responsible in reduction of Ag+ ions to Ag0 nanoparticles. Atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed that synthesized AgNPs were spherical and have an average size within 5 to 35 nm. Selected area electron diffraction and X-ray diffraction pattern displayed that synthesized AgNPs were crystalline in nature. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy study showed 10.50% of silver metal in weight in the sample. Biosynthesized AgNPs showed more antibacterial activity in Gram (−) bacteria than Gram (+). Minimum inhibitory concentration values of the biosynthesized AgNPs against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis were found to be 9, 12, 14 and 13 µg/ml, respectively. Inhibition of α-amylase activity increased with increasing concentration of biosynthesized AgNPs. This work substantially indicates that mushroom is efficient in biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles having potential antimicrobial and α-amylase inhibitory activity.

Background Menge District has long been inhabited by people who have a long tradition of using wild mushrooms mainly as food, source of income, and medicine. Extensive utilization of wild edible mushrooms (WEM) coupled with an ever-increasing population growth, deforestation, and agricultural land expansion threatens fungal diversity and WEM in the area. Hence, this study is aimed at documenting and analyzing the ethnomycological knowledge of the people in order to preserve the dwindling WEM wealth and associated indigenous knowledge. Methods Ethnomycological data were collected using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, participant observations, and walk-in-the-woods methods. Statistical tests were used to compare the indigenous knowledge and practice of wild mushroom among different informant categories using One-way ANOVA and t tests. Results A total of 20 ethnomycologically important wild mushroom species belonging to ten genera and six families were identified, of which 15 were reported to be edible in the District. The family Lyophyllaceae was represented by the highest number of species (nine species, 45%) followed by Agaricaceae (seven species, 35%) and each of the remaining four families had single species representation. Significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed on the mean number of WEM reported among different group of respondents. Wild edible mushroom collection habit and practice was significantly (P < 0.05) influenced by gender, age, and literacy level. The output of preference ranking exercise indicated Termitomyces schimperi was ranked first followed by Termitomyces letestui, Termitomyces microcarpus, and Termitomyces eurhizusas as the most preferred edible mushrooms respectively. Conclusion The present study shows that Menge District is rich in wild mushroom diversity and associated indigenous knowledge. However, anthropogenic factors together with loss of indigenous knowledge and very poor conservation efforts threaten the survival of economically and ecologically important mushrooms in the area. Thus, complementary in situ and ex situ mushroom conservation strategy is highly recommended.

Edible fungus Pleurotus ostreatus was, isolated cultured and identified from the bark of Mangifera indica tree. The hyphae emerging from the fruiting body produces secretory cells with toxin droplets in water agar medium which immobilize the nematode and mostly enter from the mouth region. Earlier finding showed that trans-2-decenedioic acid toxin affects only saprophytic nematodes through the mouth part but similar observations in plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne incognita suggested that there is no obstacle from stylet in paralysing and killing. From Indian subcontinent P. ostreatus was first time isolated, in perspective of plant parasitic nematode management in addition to mushroom production.

Commercial mushrooms are produced on lignocellulose such as straw, saw dust, and wood chips. As such, mushroom-forming fungi convert low-quality waste streams into high-quality food. Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is usually considered a waste product. This review discusses the applications of SMS to promote the transition to a circular economy. SMS can be used as compost, as a substrate for other mushroom-forming fungi, as animal feed, to promote health of animals, and to produce packaging and construction materials, biofuels, and enzymes. This range of applications can make agricultural production more sustainable and efficient, especially if the CO2 emission and heat from mushroom cultivation can be used to promote plant growth in greenhouses.

Pleurotus ostreatus is an edible mushroom with significant nutritional properties and highly valuable protein concentrates can be obtained from its fruit bodies. Functional properties of flours and protein concentrates derived from 3 Pleurotus ostreatus strains (PCM, POS and hybrid PCM × POS) were evaluated in this investigation. Fruit bodies were produced on wheat straw substrate, flours were obtained from dried and grinded fruit bodies and protein concentrates were extracted from flours by alkaline solubilization. For all 3 strains, pale yellow flours were obtained and protein concentrates showed a grayish brown color. Flour bulk densities ranged from 0.52 to 0.64 g/mL, a higher value than those for protein concentrates, i.e. 0.30-0.35 g/mL. The highest water absorption capacities (WAC) were observed for flours (300-418.8%) while protein concentrates presented higher oil absorption capacity (OAC) (173.3-214.1%). Flours and protein concentrates presented a minimal gelation concentration of 2%. Protein concentrates showed a higher foam capacity formation (FC) at pH 8. Likewise, flours and protein concentrates presented higher foam stability (FS) at alkaline pH (8 and 10). Emulsion activity index (EAI) for flours ranged from 3.96 to 26.68 m2 g-1 whereas for protein concentrates ranged from 1.55 to 10.28 m2 g-1. These results indicate that flours and protein concentrates from P. ostreatus have remarkable functional properties, valuable in food industry where foaming and emulsifying properties are required.

Selenium (Se) is an essential trace element with multiple functions that may help mitigate adverse health conditions. Cordyceps militaris is an edible mushroom with medicinal properties. The experiment was conducted under artificial cultivation, with five Se concentrations (0, 5, 10, 20, and 40 μg g-1) and three forms of Se (selenate, selenite, and selenomethionine). C. militaris can absorb inorganic from the substrate and convert it to organic Se compounds (selenocystine, selenomethionine, and an unknown species) in fruiting bodies. Compared with the control treatment, Se applications (40 μg g-1 selenate and selenite) significantly increased the Se concentration in fruiting bodies by 130.9 and 128.1 μg g-1, respectively. The biofortification with selenate and selenite did not affect fruiting body production, in some case, but did enhance the biological efficiency. Moreover, the abundance of cordycepin and adenosine increased, while the amino acid contents remained relatively stable. Meanwhile, Se-biofortified C. militaris showed effective antioxidant activities. These results suggest that Se-biofortified C. militaris fruiting bodies may enhance human and animal health when it was included as part of a healthy diet or used as Se supplements.

Mushrooms are an important food crop throughout the world. The most important edible mushroom is the button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), which comprises about 30% of the global mushroom market. This species is cultivated commercially on a selective compost that is produced predominantly from wheat straw/stable bedding and chicken manure, at a moisture content of around 70% (w/w) and temperatures of up to 80 °C. Large volumes of water are required to achieve this moisture content, and many producers therefore collect leachate from the composting windrows and bunkers (known in the industry as "goody water") and reuse it to wet the raw ingredients. This has the benefit of recycling and saving water and has the potential to enrich beneficial microorganisms that stimulate composting, but also the risk of enhancing pathogen populations that could reduce productivity. Here, we show by 16S rRNA gene sequencing that mushroom compost leachate contains a high diversity of unknown microbes, with most of the species found affiliated with the phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. However, by far the most abundant species was the thermophile Thermus thermophilus, which made up approximately 50% of the bacterial population present. Although the leachate was routinely collected and stored in an aerated central storage tank, many of the bacterial species found in leachate were facultative anaerobes. However, there was no evidence for sulfide production, and no sulfate-reducing bacterial species were detected. Because T. thermophilus is important in the high temperature phase of composting, the use of recycled leachate as an inoculum for the raw materials is likely to be beneficial for the composting process.

In this study, various vegetable proteins and two different mycelia of P. sapidus [submerged cultivated with isomaltulose molasses (Sudzucker AG, Offstein) or apple pomace (Dohler AG, Darmstadt)] were examined in a vegan boiled sausage analog system and compared with two different formulations of boiled sausage (German recipe/Russian recipe) by sensory tests and texture profile analysis (TPA). The samples were analyzed and tasted immediately after production and after 4 weeks of storage at 2 °C. In addition, the a w value, pH value, color (L × a × b value), and weight loss after boiling were determined. The hardness of the samples as determined by TPA was correlated with the sensory impressions. Compared to the Russian formulation, the vegan alternative with basidiomycetous mycelia showed particularly strong advantages in terms of strength and hardness. The use of mycelia of basidiomycetes proved to be a suitable alternative to commercial vegetable proteins.

Wild edible mushroom species are appreciated for consumption due to their high nutritional value. The aim of the present study was to examine in vitro beneficial bioactivity of mushroom extracts and to investigate the molecular identity of the active ingredients. In this regard, methanol extracts of 29 different wild edible mushroom species, that are traditionally consumed by residents in the National Park of North Pindos in North-Western Greece, were examined for antioxidant, antiproliferative, cytotoxic, and pro-apoptotic activities towards a human lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549 by the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay and by flow cytometry. Certain mushroom species exhibited high antioxidant activity, which was related to their high content in total phenols and flavonoids. Methanol extracts of Cantharellus cibarius, Cantharellus cinereus, Craterellus cornucopioides and Hydnum repandum, which belong to the order Cantharellales, exhibited high cytotoxicity and induced apoptosis–necrosis to A549 cells. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) coupled with Mass Spectrometry analysis revealed as an active ingredient piceatannol ((E)-4-[2-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)ethenyl]1,2-benzenediol-3,3′,4,5′-tetrahydroxy-trans-stilbene). Piceatannol, according to our best knowledge, is identified for the first time in wild edible mushrooms. Experiments with authentic piceatannol confirmed the potent antiproliferative activity of this compound. Tested mushrooms are promising sources of bioactive compounds.

In order to fulfill the increasing demand for edible mushrooms and maintain a steady supply throughout the year, it is necessary to domesticate new wild edible mushroom species. In this study, we domesticated Auricularia thailandica, a newly identified edible species that was collected from the wild in Thailand. We compared the growth of A. thailandica in three different growth media: sawdust, wheat husk and sugarcane bagasse. The use of sawdust resulted in the fastest rate of mycelial colonisation at 56.4 ± 1.2 days, pinheads were formed in 14.2 ± 0.4 days and the biological efficiency was 17.1 ± 2.8%. Nutritional analysis showed that A. thailandica contained a higher proportion of protein (12.99 ± 0.05%) and fat (2.93 ± 0.66%) by dry weight than other commercial Auricularia spp. available on the market. The antioxidant potential of A. thailandica varied with the extraction solvent used, and the effective concentration was found to be significantly lower in methanol extract than aqueous extract. Additionally, this species has an attractive reddish orange colour and larger basidiocarps than other commercially available species.

In the 1H NMR-guided fractionation of extracts from the edible mushroom Lactarius deliciosus, two new azulene-type sesquiterpenoids, 7-isopropenyl-4-methyl-azulene-1-carboxylic acid (1) and 15-hydroxy-3,6-dihydrolactarazulene (2), together with seven known compounds were characterized. Their structures were determined on basis of spectroscopic evidence, as well as by comparing with literature data. Amongst the known metabolites, the 13C NMR assignment of 15-hydroxy-6,7-dihydrolactarazulene (3) is reported here for the first time. Moreover, 7-acetyl-4-methylazulene-1-carbaldehyde (5) displayed a moderate antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Graphical Abstract *Digital image of L. deliciosus. Retrieved March 17, 2017 from https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Lactarius_deliciosus_1_(1).jpg . Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13659-017-0130-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The “replacing wood by grass” project can partially resolve the conflict between mushroom production and balancing the ecosystem, while promoting agricultural economic sustainability. Pleurotus pulmonarius is an economically important edible and medicinal mushroom, which is traditionally produced using a substrate consisting of sawdust and cottonseed hulls, supplemented with wheat bran. A simplex lattice design was applied to systemically optimize the cultivation of P. pulmonarius using agro-residues as the main substrate to replace sawdust and cottonseed hulls. The effects of differing amounts of wheat straw, corn straw, and soybean straw on the variables of yield, mycelial growth rate, stipe length, pileus length, pileus width, and time to harvest were demonstrated. Results indicated that a mix of wheat straw, corn straw, and soybean straw may have significantly positive effects on each of these variables. The high yield comprehensive formula was then optimized to include 40.4% wheat straw, 20.3% corn straw, 18.3% soybean straw, combined with 20.0% wheat bran, and 1.0% light CaCO3 (C/N = 42.50). The biological efficiency was 15.2% greater than that of the control. Most encouraging was the indication that the high yield comprehensive formula may shorten the time to reach the reproductive stage by 6 days, compared with the control. Based on the results of this study, agro-residues may be used as a suitable substitution for sawdust and cottonseed hulls as the main cultivation substrates of P. pulmonarius. These results provide a theoretical basis for the “replacing wood by grass” project on edible mushroom cultivation.

Diabetes and obesity are the most frequently found disease worldwide. Several factors are responsible for obesity, i.e., imbalance in energy expenditure, environmental factors, feeding habit, lifestyle, etc., which can also be responsible for type 2 diabetes mellitus. There are several synthetic drugs available to combat these diseases which have some side effects on sufferers. Therefore, people are shifting towards inexpensive, effective, widely available natural and herbal medicines. Edible mushrooms, which have been used from ancient time to cure these diseases, contain anti-oxidant, fibers, triterpenoids, alkaloid, and other phytochemicals. Comatin, β-glucan, Tremellastin, and Lentinan KS-2 are active chemicals of mushrooms which show great effect on diabetes mellitus and obesity by modulating either cellular function or biochemical pathways. Here, in this review, we have discussed the potential role of edible mushrooms and its biochemicals in control of diabetes and obesity. Using Bioinformatics, we can find the specific targets of theses biochemicals, so that these can be more effective.

Lepista sordida is an edible and medicinal mushroom, but, until now, it had to be collected from the wild. The present study is the first report of the successful cultivation of a wild strain of L. sordida from Thailand. The morphological description and molecular examination of the fungus are included, in order to confirm the identification of the species. Optimization was carried out for mycelium growth and fruiting body production. yeast malt extract (YMA), pH 6.0 - 7.0 and a temperature of 25 - 30 °C. A sorghum mushroom spawn was used for upscaling of the mycelium to be used for fruiting body production. Optimal conditions for the fruiting phase were 25 °C with 95–97% humidity in a compost rice straw medium with sandy-soil casing layer. Additionally, the secondary metabolites of fruiting body and cultured mycelium were investigated. Nudic acid B, a known toxic polyacetylene, was isolated from submerged cultures of L. sordida, while no polyacetylenic compounds were found in the fruiting bodies.

Fruiting bodies (500 g per site) of Tricholoma matsutake and the surface layer of soils collected from 20 spatially distant areas with pristine backgrounds across China were analyzed for potassium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, iron, copper, manganese and cadmium using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. In terms of the bioconcentration and bioexclusion concept, K, Mg, Zn, and Cu were highly bioconcentrated, and their bioconcentration factor values varied between 75-615, 2-107, 38-603 and 7-76, respectively, across the 20 sites. Fe, Mn and Cd were moderately bioconcentrated and their bioconcentration factors (BCFs) varied between 0.6-34.0, 0.4-37.0 and 0.9-7.0 respectively. However, Ca was excluded (BCF

A novel sphingosine, 1,2-diacetyl D-erythro-sphinganine having a characteristic almond flavour was isolated from the edible mushroom Grifola gargal. We have synthesized this sphinganine along with the three other sphingolipids, such as 1,2-diacetyl L-threo-sphinganine, D-erythro-sphinganine triacetate and L-threo-sphinganine triacetate using Garner aldehyde as the starting material involving the Grignard reaction and Mitsunobu inversion. The sphingolipids 1,2-diacetyl D-erythro-sphinganine and 1,2-diacetyl L-threo-sphinganine have been synthesized for the first time.

Five wild edible mushroom species, Amanita rubescens var. rubescens, Boletus edulis, Geopora arenicola, Morchella deliciosa and Sparassis crispa collected from different regions of Jammu and Kashmir were biochemically characterized for their nutritive value and a significant variation was observed among them. The total protein, phenol, crude fibre and ash content of these mushrooms were estimated on the dry weight basis which ranged from 16.2 ± 0.72 to 31.3 ± 1.15 mg/g, 5100 ± 100.0 to 11,500 ± 866.0 mg/kg, 3.9 ± 0.05 to 6.5 ± 0.50 %, 4.9 ± 0.11 to 9.9 ± 0.11 %, respectively. Also, these investigated macrofungal species were found to contain some important minerals like Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe. Of these, iron was the most dominant mineral followed by zinc, copper and manganese. This study suggests that these investigated wild edible mushrooms are rich in nutrients, minerals and due to the presence of phenols these may be used as source of natural antioxidants.

The content and bioaccumulation of trace (Ag, Se, As) and major elements (Ca, Mg, Na and K) in wild edible mushroom Macrolepiota procera and its corresponding soil substrates, collected from five sites in the Rasina region in central Serbia, were investigated. The content of Ag, As and Se was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) while the amount of Ca, Mg, Na and K was determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES). The concentrations of major elements in the mushrooms were at typical levels. As far as trace elements are concerned, M. procera bioaccumulates silver although all samples were collected from unpolluted sites. It was found that the content of Ag depended on the geographical origin and the density of fruiting body on the certain site. Principal component analysis distinguished the mushroom samples from different geographical areas and revealed the influence of soil composition on metal content in fruiting bodies. Also, a linear regression correlation test was performed to investigate correlations between Ag, Cd, Se, Pb and As in caps and stipes at different geographic sites separately. In addition, our results indicated that M. procera could serve as a good dietary source of Mg, K and Se. The content of Ag and As was low, so it could not pose a health risk for consumers. Supplementary material: [http://cherry.chem.bg.ac.rs/handle/123456789/3617]

The aim of the study was to (i) investigate the potential of edible mushroom Boletus badius (Fr.) Fr. to accumulate 53 elements from unpolluted acidic sandy soil and polluted alkaline flotation tailing sites in Poland, (ii) to estimate the low-molecular-weight organic acid (LMWOA) profile and contents in fruit bodies, and finally (iii) to explore the possible relationship between elements and LMWOA content in mushrooms. The content of most elements in fruiting bodies collected from the flotation tailings was significantly higher than in mushrooms from the unpolluted soils. The occurrence of elements determined in fruiting bodies of B. badius has been varied (from 0.01 mg kg−1 for Eu, Lu, and Te up to 18,932 mg kg−1 for K). The results established the high importance of element contents in substrate. Among ten organic acids, nine have been found in wide range: from below 0.01 mg kg−1 for fumaric acid to 14.8 mg g−1 for lactic acid. Lactic and succinic acids were dominant in both areas, and citric acid was also in high content in polluted area. The correlation between element contents and the individual and total content of LMWOAs was confirmed. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11356-016-7222-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Environmentally acceptable disposal of olive cultivation residues (e.g., olive prunings; olive pruning residues (OLPR)) and olive mill wastes is of paramount importance since they are generated in huge quantities within a short time. Moreover, olive mill wastewater (OMW) or sludge-like effluents ("alperujo"; two-phase olive mill waste (TPOMW)) are highly biotoxic. Hericium erinaceus is a white-rot fungus which produces choice edible mushrooms on substrates rich in lignocellulosics, and its suitability for the treatment of olive by-products was examined for the first time. Fungal growth resulted in a notable reduction of OMW's pollution parameters (i.e., 65 % decolorization, 47 % total phenolic reduction, and 52 % phytotoxicity decrease) and correlated with laccase and manganese peroxidase activities. Solid-state fermentation of various mixtures of OLPR, TPOMW, and beech sawdust (control) by H. erinaceus qualified OLPR in subsequent cultivation experiments, where it exhibited high mushroom yields and biological efficiency (31 %). Analyses of proximate composition and bioactive compound content revealed that mushrooms deriving from OLPR substrates showed significantly higher crude fat, total glucan, β-glucan, total phenolics, and ferric-reducing antioxidant potential values than the control. H. erinaceus demonstrated the potential to detoxify OMW and bioconvert OLPR into high-quality biomass, and hence, this fungus could be successfully exploited for the treatment of such by-products.

In this study, the amount of reduced glutathione (GSH), oxidized glutathione (GSSG), and malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and selenium was determined by using the fluorescence spectrophotometer in eight different species of edible mushrooms. Brittlegill mushroom (Russula delica), meadow mushroom (Agaricus campestris), dryad’s saddle mushroom (Polyporus squamosus), white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), Pleurotus spp., ink mushroom (Coprinus atramentarius), ebekari mushroom (slimy) (Elazig local) and casir mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii) (Tunceli local) were used for analysis. The amounts of GSH, GSSG, Se, and MDA with GSH/GSSG ratio in the eight different species of edible mushrooms were observed in between 269.10 ± 16.94–1554.83 ± 58.12 μg/g; 23.55 ± 1.89–841.90 ± 20.03 μg/g; 15.06 ± 1.56–82.10 ± 3.84 μg/g; 5.46 ± 0.50–27.45 ± 2.58 μg/g wet weight and 0.32–41.35, respectively. There is a weak correlation (R 2 = 0.389) between MDA and Se, on the other hand, the correlation (R 2 = 0.831) between GSH/GSSG ratio and selenium in mushrooms are reasonable well. In a similar manner, there is a weak correlation (R 2 = 0551) between GSH/GSSG and MDA ratios in mushrooms. It was found that these edible mushroom species are good source of glutathione (GSH, GSSG), and selenium (Se) in terms of quantities obtained; therefore, it can be said that mushrooms are a rich source of antioxidants.

In vitro antioxidant activities, total phenolic, and flavonoid contents of Pleurotus djamor extracts were analyzed based on radical scavenging activities of methanol and aqueous extracts using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH), N,N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DMPD), total Fe3+ reducing power, CUPRAC, phosphomolybdenum, metal chelating activity, and lipid peroxidation inhibition assays. Both extract types showed efficient radical scavenging activities against DPPH and DMPD radicals, ferric (Fe3+) and cupric (Cu2+) ion reducing powers, metal chelating activities, and lipid peroxidation inhibition. Total phenolic contents of methanol and aqueous extracts were 2.79 and 5.95 mg of GAE/g, respectively. Flavonoid contents of methanol and aqueous extracts were 6.35 and 5.75 mg of CAE/g, respectively. Consumption of the mushroom P. djamor can be beneficial due to antioxidant properties.

During many years of industrial development, soil system was contaminated with large amounts of toxic metals. In order to investigate the mobility and availability of metals from soil to mushrooms, the content of 13 elements (Al, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, Ti, and Zn), in caps and stipes of wild-grown edible mushroom Macrolepiota procera and soil substrates, collected from five sites in Rasina region in central Serbia, was determined. Soil samples were subjected to the sequential extraction procedure proposed by the Community Bureau of Reference in order to fractionate acid-soluble/exchangeable, reducible, oxidizable, and residual fractions. Metal concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer and the results subjected to multivariate data analysis. A principal component analysis distinguished mushrooms samples from different geographical areas and revealed the influence of soil composition on metal content in mushrooms. Hierarchical cluster analyses confirmed that the first three phases of extraction were the most important for metal uptake by mushrooms from soil. The bioconcentration factors and translocation factors for each metal were also calculated. These results showed that M. procera could serve as a good dietary source of essential elements, especially Cu, Zn, Mn, and Fe but the consumption of mushrooms may pose a health risk for consumers during the "season of mushrooms," due to the presence of cadmium. Supplementary material: [http://cherry.chem.bg.ac.rs/handle/123456789/3565]

Pleurotus tuoliensis is a valuable, rare and edible mushroom that is been commercially cultivated and is rapidly developing in China markets. Low temperatures are required to induces primordia initiation for the successful production of fruiting bodies (basidiomes) during commercial cultivation. In this work, we investigated the enzymatic activities and performed transcription profiling analysis of enzymatic genes under different low temperature conditions. The results suggest that the enzymatic activities and transcription levels decrease or increase significantly at 4 and 13 °C. Lacc10 and mnp6 seems to play a dominant role during nutrition growth. Furthermore, the expression of laccase and peroxidase genes was highly correlated to the detected extracellular enzymatic activity. Cold stress genes expression profiles were upregulated under 4 °C/13 °C (3 days), while only the Hsp70 gene was downregulated (at the stage of fruiting bodies production) at 13 °C (12 days). Our results showed that the transcriptional regulation of laccase and ligninolytic peroxidase genes plays an important role in the fruiting bodies of Bailinggu under low temperature induction (4 °C). Induction at low temperatures was a highly important cultivation condition in Bailinggu.

Background Majority of the people in rural areas depend on traditional fungi-based medicines to combat different illnesses. This ethnomycological survey was undertaken to document the traditional knowledge of mushrooms among the communities in the Kilum-Ijim mountain forest reserve. Although macrofungi are exploited for food and medicine, their ethnomycological knowledge has not been documented in this ecosystem. Methods A field study was carried out between 2014 and 2015; 14 mushrooms used by the local communities were collected and identified using the polymorphism of the ribosomal ITS1, 5.8S, and ITS2 regions. Semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, and pictorial method were used to collect information on edibility, local names, indigenous knowledge, and the role of macrofungi in ten communities. Results Ethnomycological findings revealed that mushrooms were used as food and medicine, while the non-edible species were regarded as food from Satan. Eight species, Polyporus tenuiculus, Termitomyces striatus, Termitomyces microcarpus Auricularia polytricha, Laetiporus sulphureus, Termitomyces sp.1, Termitomyces sp.2, and Polyporus dictyopus, were reported as edible and Auricularia polytricha, Daldinia concentrica, Ganoderma applanatum, Lentinus squarrosulus, Polyporus dictyopus, Termitomyces microcarpus, Trametes versicolor, Vascellum pretense and Xylaria sp., were used as medicine in traditional health care. Local names were found to be a very important factor in distinguishing between edible, medicinal, and poisonous mushrooms. Edible mushrooms are called “awo’oh” in Belo and “Kiwoh” in Oku. Poisonous mushrooms were commonly referred to as “awo’oh Satan” in Belo and “Kiwohfiyini” in Oku. Mushrooms were highly valued as a source of protein and as a substitute for meat in their diets. It is worth noting that Polyporus dictyopus was reported here for the first time in literature as an edible mushroom species. Conclusion Local knowledge of medicinal mushrooms in the treatment of different illness still exists in all ten villages surveyed. Elderly men and women appear to play an important role in primary health care services in these communities. This survey underscores the need to preserve and document traditional knowledge of the different medicinal mushrooms used in treating different illnesses and for more future scientific research on the mushrooms to determine their efficacy and their safety.

King oyster mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii) contains many medicinal and nutritional values, excellent flavors, and a long shelf life. Cultivation of edible mushroom on agricultural and lignocellulosic waste like wheat straw and wood chips gives a high yield and nutritional contains. In present study, the effects of lignocellulosic organic wastes, such as wood chips, wheat and barley straw, sugar beet pulp, sawdust and maize stem residue as basal substrate and wheat and rice bran, soybean powder and their combinations were used as supplements. We analyzed mushroom production gap, mushroom fresh weight, moisture content, dry matter, and protein content of fruit body traits. A factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with four replications. Supplementation of wheat bran in wood chips increased the mushroom production gap and dry matter content. The highest mushroom fresh weight and moisture content were achieved on barley straw and sugar beet pulp substrate complemented with rice bran, respectively. In addition, protein content ranged from 4.64 % (barley straw + wheat bran and wood chips + soybean powder + rice bran treatments) to 13.66 % (wheat straw + wheat bran + soybean powder treatment). The quality of P. eryngii was significantly affected by substrate ingredients. The type of substrate as well as the type and quantity of supplement appeared to have a substantial effect on prolonging the delayed-release nutrients.

Four Gram-negative-staining, facultatively anaerobic bacterial isolates were obtained from the fruiting bodies of the edible mushroom Pleurotus eryngii showing symptoms of bacterial blight disease in Beijing, China. Nearly complete 16S rRNA gene sequencing placed these isolates in the genus Pantoea. Multilocus sequence analysis based on the partial sequences of atpD, gyrB, infB and rpoB revealed Pantoea agglomerans as their closest phylogenetic relatives. DNA-DNA hybridization and phenotypic tests confirmed the classification of the new isolates as a novel species. The name Pantoea pleuroti sp. nov. [type strain KCTC 42084(T) = CGMCC 1.12894(T) = JZB 2120015(T)] is proposed.

Edible mushroom based compounds are novel source of anti-cancer compounds. Present investigation aims to study the molecular interaction of potential mushroom derived compounds for their anti-cancer activity. The current work reports twenty two potential mushroom compounds based on the Molecular Docking results with binding site of mouse double minute 2 (Mdm2) homolog receptor model, over expression of which inhibits the activity of p53 in most of the cancer cases. Compounds namely, hispidin (−82.625), lucidenic acid (−76.205) and cordycepin (−74.825) has been identified as novel inhibitors of Mdm2 receptor in terms of least docking scores and hydrogen bonding interaction with reference to chromenotriazolopyridine. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity results of these three compounds were found positive and optimal. Therefore, predicted mushroom derived compounds in the present study may be promising starting points for designing Mdm2 inhibitors as future therapeutics of cancer.

Due to their hydrophobic characteristics, hydrophobins function in a broad range of processes in the growth and development of filamentous fungi. In this study, a novel hydrophobin, PN1, was purified from the fruiting bodies of Pleurotus nebrodensis by first removing other proteins from mycelial cell walls with hot SDS solution. The molecular mass of PN1 was approximately 10.7 kDa. The N-terminal AA sequence was QESPVNQCNTGSIEECKTVQ, which did not match that of any other mushroom hydrophobin described thus far. Levels of hydrophobin PN1 protein in the tissue of fruiting bodies was decreased by fruiting body development under low temperatures. Low levels of hydrophobin PN1 was correlated to the formation of water-soaked blotches on fruiting body tissues that appeared dark and translucent, and were usually sunken. In addition, hydrophobin PN1 levels were correlated with protecting fruiting bodies against surface bacterial colonization and multiplication. Low levels of hydrophobin PN1 resulted in water-soaked blotches that had high levels of surface bacteria belonging to multiple species when compared with nonsymptomatic tissue of fruiting bodies with higher hydrophobin PN1. These results show a direct link between mushroom hydrophobins and resistance of mushrooms to bacterial attack.

Traditionally Laetiporus sulphureus, commonly known as “Chicken-of-the-Woods”, is considered a delicacy in various parts of the world and recently has shown medical potential in several treatments such as antitumor, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immune-modulating etc. However, quality standards of this species have not been studied so far. For this purpose, microscopic features of powder such as physical characters, spore measurement, type of hyphae were examined and recorded. Physicochemical parameters like organoleptic features, loss on drying (5.15 %), total ash (3.04 %), swelling capacity (1.66 ml/g), water holding capacity (163.16 g/g), water solubility index (21.73 %) and fluorescent behaviour against 16 reagents were also determined. In addition, alcoholic extract was prepared using methanol as solvent where extractive value was 24.27 %. Preliminary mycochemical analysis indicated presence of cardiac glycoside, flavonoid, phenol, saponin and terpenoids in the extract. While quantitatively major bioactive components were present in the following order of flavonoid > phenol > ascorbic acid > β-carotene > lycopene. Moreover, HPTLC and HPLC profiles were recorded to determine phenolic fingerprint. HPTLC characterization showed presence of at least 5 components as detected by scanning the plate at 300 nm and HPLC chromatogram indicated existence of 32 peaks which might be of phenolic compounds. In addition, superoxide radical scavenging (EC50 1.38 mg/ml), DPPH radical scavenging (EC50 0.11 mg/ml), chelating ability of ferrous ion (EC50 0.27 mg/ml), reducing power (EC50 0.26 mg/ml) and total antioxidant capacity (18.01 µg AAE/mg of extract) were determined to evaluate antioxidant potentiality of the extract. The above parameters are significant towards establishing pharmacognostic standards for future authentication of genuine mushroom material.

Polyphenol rich fraction of Termitomyces heimii, a wild edible mushroom, was prepared to investigate its antioxidant activity and presence of different bioactive constituents. A preliminary chemical investigation was performed and it revealed that the fraction possessed various types of components with maximum amount of phenol. The other found components were in the following consequence flavonoid > ascorbic acid > s-carotene > lycopene. HPLC data analyses showed presence of cinnamic acid and a good amount of pyrogallol (9603 µg/g of dry tissue of mushroom). The extract showed best hydroxyl radical scavenging activity (EC50 = 0.021 mg/ml). EC50 values for SOD radical scavenging assay was as low as 0.19 mg/ml. That of the rest of the antioxidant assays i.e., DPPH radical scavenging assay and reducing assay were only 0.49 and 1.31 mg/ml respectively. Thus T. heimii can be used as an easily accessible source of natural antioxidants or for the development of a new health medicine for fighting against various human stress related diseases.