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Agroforestry has potential for strengthening the climate change resilience of smallholder farmers in Southeast Asia. In Indonesia, the food security challenges faced by smallholders will likely worsen due to climate change impacts. Agroforestry provides and option for strengthening climate change resilience, while contributing to food access, income, health, and environmental stability. To evaluate the evidence for such benefits, this systematic review identifies 22 peer-reviewed articles published between 2000 and 2019 which assess agroforestry’s contributions to food security in Indonesia, mostly in Java or Sumatra. Analysis of the studies indicate that traditional and commercial agroforestry contribute to food security in diverse ways: for example, traditional homegardens offer 20% more dietary diversity than commercial counterparts, while commercial homegardens may contribute up to five times more income. Agri-silviculture contributions fall along a timber versus non-timber forest product continuum that displays a similar tradeoff between diversity and income. Those systems with a commercial focus may receive 54% of their income from a single commodity crop such as coffee, while traditional systems allow greater access to plants with medicinal benefits. Nearly all agroforestry systems offered indirect benefits for food security, such as allowing more off-farm work than traditional agriculture and contributing to environmental stability: users of agroforestry were found by one study to collect 83% less fuelwood from natural forests. One study highlighted that agroforestry options have up to 98% greater net present value (for periods over 30 years) compared to slash and burn style agriculture. However, very few studies of Indonesian agroforestry focused explicitly on financial analysis and food security, indicating the need for further research. Given the similar situations faced by many Southeast Asia countries, our findings contribute to emerging trends throughout the region regarding the relationship between agroforestry and food security.

India is a biodiversity-rich country. The panorama of Indian forests ranges from tropical evergreen rain forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and the north-eastern States, to Dry Alpine Scrub high in the Himalayas in the north. On the other extreme, tropical dry deciduous and thorn forest is found in the deserts and dry areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The variety and distribution of forest vegetation are large, and India is one of the 17 mega biodiversity regions of the world. Forestry in India supports a sizeable non-wood forest product-based economy apart from timber and fuelwood. In forested landscapes people are integrated with forest and make living out of it. On the other hand urbanization and infrastructure development are putting considerable pressure on forests. These issues need effective and efficient forest monitoring system. Hence in late 1980s, India entrusted Forest Survey of India to evolve robust and scientific method of forest monitoring. Thus, India has taken an early lead in establishing a forest monitoring system. The history of forest cover mapping using satellite images in the country goes back to 1983 when National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA—now known as NRSC-ISRO) prepared the first-ever forest cover map of India. Later, Forest Survey of India has been mandated with the forest cover mapping of the country in the biennial cycle since 1987. Three decades of forest cover mapping on a regular basis have been a remarkable achievement in the field of natural resource monitoring. India’s remote sensing-based periodic monitoring of forest cover, which is unique in the world, has played a major role in conservation and enhancement of forest cover of the country. Evolving with satellite data improvement and technological advancements, the methodology of forest cover mapping by FSI has seen significant changes over the years, wherein Indian remote sensing data, particularly the IRS 1C/1D LISS III data, have been the primary input in the time series mapping. This paper reviews the chronology and significance of this important forest monitoring programme of India.

Nontimber forest products (NTFPs)‬ are one of the forest products that can provide direct benefits to communities living around forests. Some of the most used NTFPs in Indonesia are the stems, leaves and fruit of candlenut trees. Candlenut fruit is widely used in the cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and biodiesel industries and is generally used as a cooking ingredient in Indonesia. However, only a limited number of people or community groups manage the forests to increase their income from this business. The aim of this study is to identify business models to serve as the basis for developing alternative business model organizational plans for candlenut extraction. A case study approach was adopted, with in-depth interviews used to collect data. The integration of Business Model Canvas, SWOT Analysis, Internal Factor Evaluation and External Factor Evaluation matrix were used to determine alternative strategies. The results exhibit that the value proposition is the largest barrier for the improvement of these businesses. The Positioning Quadrant SWOT shows that internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) are low, indicating that the candlenut business position is internally weak. However, the scores of external factors (opportunities and threats) are higher implying that there is a great opportunity in the development of candlenut. The alternative strategies to develop candlenut business are to maintain relationships with customers and partners; increasing the quantity and quality of products through technology inputs, promotion, product diversification, and partnership with the government.‬‬

Copaifera oleoresin is an important traditional non-timber forest product in the Amazon; however, the Carajas National Forest has no plans to harvest this product to benefit extractive families. The objective of this study was to determine Copaifera oleoresin extraction potential in the Carajas National Forest, Eastern Amazon, identifying variables that could increase the chances of finding oleoresin. We mapped 129 trees and formulated a multiple logistic regression model (logit) with the collected variables: diameter at breast height (DBH), tree crown, tree health, presence of termites, and presence of damage or bifurcation. Among the mapped trees, we perforated 50 trees to harvest the oleoresin. Most of the oleoresin production occurred in trees with a DBH between 50 and 75 cm. The logit model predicted that an increase in DBH, dense crown, unhollowed trunk, and presence of damage or bifurcation increased the chances of oleoresin extraction, whereas termites did not. The model could contribute to the sustainable management of forest resources by avoiding random perforation of trees and establishing rational routes and cycles of extraction. Since the variables are easily measured, the model can be continuously used for future extractions.

Improving forest product value chains is considered a means to solve forest-related challenges in the Global South. The ‘Participative Innovation Platform’ (PIP) instrument has been developed to design and to continually adapt solutions and strategies for effective cooperation amongst value chain actors. The instrument is rooted in the action-oriented and social learning approach, combined with the concept of innovation systems. This paper presents findings from three PIPs conducted for upgrading non-timber forest product value chains in Ethiopia (bamboo, natural gums) and Sudan (gum Arabic). A comparative analysis of highest ranked contents revealed similarities in the challenges: lack of government support, poor infrastructure, producers’ lack of knowledge and skills, and lack of market information. Priority upgrading measures focused on producers’ knowledge, skills, and capacity to engage in collective action and to lobby interests, and on capital resources to invest in processing technology. It is concluded that although the PIP instrument presents an innovative way to upgrade forest-based value chains, the instrument requires a long-term process with frequently held platform meetings, conducted by neutral institutions with skilled moderators. Crucial in this process is the need to consistently verify and ensure that all actor groups of the chain are represented, and are confident they will derive benefits from the value chain upgrading.

Quassia amara L. is a semi-sciophyte species that can be found growing as a large shrub or a small tree in Neotropical rainforests. It is traditionally harvested as a non-wood forest product for culinary, medicinal and insecticidal uses. Lack of knowledge on the ecological conditions that support tree growth limits the development of sustainable forest management plans of natural forests and the development of new agroecological cultivation models. The overall objectives of the present work are to (1) compare the Quassia amara L. growth in different forest structures; (2) evaluate the impact of light conditions on Quassia amara L. diameter growth, total height growth and height–diameter relationship and (3) discuss implications for the sustainable management of the species in agroecosystems. Light conditions are characterized at the tree level by the crown illumination index (cii), which is a visual and ordinal index. Results show that tree growth varies between plots with different forest structures and light conditions. The cii was able to characterize light conditions. Best light conditions were different for diameter and total height growth: cii value of 5.0 (tree crown completely exposed to overhead and lateral direct light) and cii value of 3.5 (tree crown exposed to some vertical/overhead direct light and low direct light), respectively. The cii did not affect the height–diameter relationship. A value of cii equal to 4 was found as an intermediate condition and recommended for the establishment of new agroecosystems including the Quassia amara L.

Local Knowledge and Economical Significance of Commercialized Wild Edible Mushrooms in the Markets of Uruapan, Michoacan, Mexico. Wild edible mushrooms are a non-timber forest product of great importance because of their edibility, their cultural and ecological roles, and particularly their economic relevance as merchandise. This study presents a method for the identification of the most economically significant species through a compound index. Fieldwork was carried out in seven markets in the city of Uruapan, Michoacan, Mexico. We recorded the sale of 16 species that constitute 10 local ethnotaxa. Aspects of traditional mycological knowledge regarding systematics, ethnoecology, uses, and collection practices were also obtained. The most significant taxa were Hypomyces lactifluorum, Amanita complex. caesarea, Ramaria spp., and Lyophyllum decastes. We can suggest that the most economically significant species of mushrooms sold in this region are those with the highest supply in markets and correspondingly high profit for collectors. The compound index proved to be a useful tool not only to discover which species are the most relevant, but also to provide explanations for the reasons behind their significance.

The role of digital technologies for fostering sustainability and efficiency in forest-based supply chains is well acknowledged and motivated several studies in the scope of precision forestry. Sensor technologies can collect relevant data in forest-based supply chains, comprising all activities from within forests and the production of the woody raw material to its transformation into marketable forest-based products. Advanced planning systems can help to support decisions of the various entities in the supply chain, e.g., forest owners, harvest companies, haulage companies, and forest product processing industry. Such tools can help to deal with the complex interdependencies between different entities, often with opposing objectives and actions—which may increase efficiency of forest-based supply chains. This paper analyzes contemporary literature dealing with digital technologies in forest-based supply chains and summarizes the state-of-the-art digital technologies for real-time data collection on forests, product flows, and forest operations, as well as planning systems and other decision support systems in use by supply chain actors. Higher sustainability and efficiency of forest-based supply chains require a seamless information flow to foster integrated planning of the activities over the supply chain—thereby facilitating seamless data exchange between the supply chain entities and foster new forms of collaboration. Therefore, this paper deals with data exchange and multi-entity collaboration aspects in combination with interoperability challenges related with the integration among multiple process data collection tools and advanced planning systems. Finally, this interdisciplinary review leads to the discussion of relevant guidelines that can guide future research and integration projects in this domain.

Firewood is commonly used in developing regions, mainly as a primary energy source. This study quantified and analyzed the carbon footprint associated with firewood consumption in the Brazilian Northeast. The Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied, using the IPCC GWP 100y environmental impact assessment method and EcoInvent database, within software SimaPro. Forest product harvesting (extractivism) and silviculture were compared from available data (1994 and 2013). The results revealed that the burning of firewood from extractivism presented a higher carbon footprint than silviculture: 16 versus 10 kg CO2-eq/m3, respectively. The Rio Grande do Norte state presented the highest carbon footprint per area associated with extractivism and silviculture, for the year 1994. Considering the most recent available 2013 data, the highest carbon footprints per area associated with extractivism and silviculture were, respectively, for the Ceara and Bahia states. Quantification of carbon footprints are crucial to monitor progress in climate change mitigation, and can be utilized to build inventories, which are important for policy formulation and implementation.

Management strategies which encourage the conversion of coniferous forests to mixed and deciduous stands potentially increase the share of non-coniferous timber in wood supply over the next decades. The objective of this study is to examine possible market impacts from changing wood supply modeled in the German Forest Development and Timber Volume Model (WEHAM) Scenario. Special emphasis is paid to decreasing coniferous timber availability and the ramifications this development might have on the wood-based industry in Germany. For this purpose, our study introduces the GFPMCNC, a modified version of the Global Forest Products Model (GFPM) which distinguishes coniferous and non-coniferous industrial roundwood as different raw materials and coniferous and non-coniferous sawnwood as additional products on global level. In the GFPMCNC, wood-based panels and pulp could be made from a mix of two roundwood commodities instead of one single input factor. The base period for this study is 2012. Results are reported by 2015 and in the following in mid-period intervals at 5-year steps until 2050. The WEHAM Scenario impact analysis reveals that limited coniferous raw materials lead to lower wood manufacturing activities and declining exports of coniferous sawnwood at the same time as German imports of coniferous industrial roundwood and wood pulp increase over time.

Many factors influence adoption of smallholder agroforestry systems as part of the farm business. This paper reports farm and household factors affecting the adoption of timber and non-timber forest product management practices by farmers in Gunungkidul, Sumbawa and Timor Tengah Selatan districts in Indonesia; and how understanding those factors can facilitate the adoption of silvicultural practices for enhancing timber and NTFPs production. The research uses logistic regression models to identify the significant factors influencing farmers’ agroforestry adoption and management decisions. When considering a total of 16 factors equally, the models confirmed that farmers who have access to extension services, farmers’ groups and knowledge of government policy are more likely to adopt timber and NTFPs production technologies. The probability of management practices increasing with the greater land area was due to space for growing more timber and NTFPs species. Also, the possibility of adopting timber and NTFPs management increased as farmers had more income from on- and off-farm activities. These findings suggest that when designing extension programs farm and household factors should be considered by policy makers, researchers and extension providers.

Most Nepalese rural households adopt diversified strategies of income generation and use products directly collected from forests. To analyse the influence of livelihood strategy on forest product utilisation, a survey of 336 rural households in lowland Nepal was conducted. Four livelihood strategies were identified by means of a Principal Component Analysis based on income variables, followed by hierarchical cluster analysis. Two livelihood strategies are assigned to on-farm activities and two to off-farm activities. The off-farm based strategies were found to result in higher household incomes. To test for differences across the livelihood strategies, additional socio-demographic variables, physical assets and location information have been analysed using ANOVA. The forest product utilisation behaviour of the households differs significantly between livelihood strategies. The households adopting a subsistence-based strategy collect the most forest products while achieving the lowest total income. However, a general influence of the total household income on the forest utilisation intensity is not confirmed. Households receiving remittances from abroad achieve the highest incomes but still collect forest products. The group of most forest-dependent households is mainly characterised by living near the forest and far from city centres with commodity and labour markets, and by having low education and a young head of household. The households relying mainly on private business income have the lowest forest product utilisation and are characterised by the highest education, proximity to markets and greatest area of agricultural land.

Commercial exploitation of wild yams (Dioscorea spp.) was once a pillar of the Mexican economy and is currently practiced in the USA and Asia. However, no such activity has yet been reported in South America, the continent richest in Dioscorea species. Upon discovery of wild Dioscorea tubers in marketplaces in Bogota, Colombia, we sought to (1) identify the species being sold, (2) document the medicinal properties attributed to them, and (3) conduct a preliminary characterization of the market for this product in the capital. During the years 2010, 2012, and 2013, 226 semi-structured interviews were conducted with vendors in 82 medicinal plant stalls distributed in marketplaces throughout Bogota. Tubers of four native species were identified, all wild-harvested: D ioscorea coriacea, Dioscorea lehmannii, Dioscorea meridensis, and Dioscorea polygonoides; all were sold under the generic name zarzaparrilla, with D. coriacea being the most prevalent species. All vendors interviewed recommended Dioscorea spp. for treating “ailments of the blood,” with “blood cleanser,” and lowering triglycerides and cholesterol as the most often-cited specific uses. Total estimates of sales of wild yams over the study period averaged 488 kg/week, extrapolated to over 25,000 kg/year, with yearly sales varying between 5% and 6% around the mean. This is the first report of raw tubers of any Dioscorea species being commercialized for the treatment of blood or metabolic disorders in Latin America, and the data suggest there is a robust market established in Bogota. In the interest of public health, pharmacological studies should be undertaken to test the biological activity of these species and to rule out toxicity. We especially recommend population studies of D. coriacea to provide baseline data for sustainable management of this non-timber forest product.

International audience; AbstractKey messageIn a major Australian city, water supply has been decoupled from forests as a result of management and climate change. Water yield and quality are closely related to forest cover and have been manipulated through broad-scale intervention. The forests remain important for biodiversity protection and considering water as a forest product will fund interventions that maintain the forest’s environmental values.ContextPerth, an Australian city of 2 million people and a potable water demand of 300 GL/year, occurs in a region that has experienced a decline in rainfall and a major reduction in surface runoff to water supply reservoirs over the last 40 years. This has led to a major impact on water policies, with the collapse of surface water supply from forested watersheds resulting in the almost complete substitution of Perth’s water supply with groundwater and desalinated water. Thus, water supply has been decoupled from forests and forest management processes.AimsIn this paper, we review the interactions between forest cover and water supply in the drying environment of south-western Australia, exploring studies on the hydrological effects of extensive deforestation for agricultural development, widespread reforestation, forest management, and reduced annual rainfall. We draw conclusions applicable to other regions that are experiencing the combined impacts of climate change and pressures from land-use intensification.ResultsWe find that streamflow and water quality are clearly linked to forest cover and this is affected by both climate and forest management. Streamflow increases with a reduction of forest cover (through deforestation or thinning) and decreases with reforestation and reduced rainfall. Stream salinity increases with deforestation and decreases with reforestation. Hydrological responses occur where forest cover treatments have been applied and maintained at watershed-scales. Surprisingly, where water yield or quality has been improved, this has not been rewarded financially and there is a need to develop methods of financing treatments to maintain streamflow.ConclusionWhereas forests were initially maintained for water and timber supply, with biodiversity protection as a co-benefit without a defined value, the decoupling of forests from water supply has substantially reduced the financial resources for any form of direct forest management. As the forests remain important for biodiversity protection, a key recommendation is to consider water as a forest product and thus provide funds for watershed-scale treatments, such as forest thinning, that maintain the forest’s environmental values in a drying climate.

In terms of global forest product market developments, the twenty-first century has been in many ways very different from the twentieth century—striking structural changes have taken place. The global forest sector can be interpreted to be in a phase of creative destruction—an era characterized by a major decline of a number of established products and businesses, and simultaneous emergence of new products and businesses. The forest product research field appears to be lacking the tools for formally assessing the significance and extent of the changing production and consumption patterns. That is, the mainstream of quantitative forest product market research has relied to a large extent on forest sector modelling, focusing on questions related to the impacts of policies, sufficiency of wood resources, trends in the production of primary wood products, and international competitiveness. In doing so, they have paid less emphasis on some of the equally important questions, such as value added development, employment issues, structural changes, the diffusion of new products and services, and the realistic contribution of the forest-based sector to the global sustainability challenges. When considering the importance of global forest product markets to the economy, employment and forests, and the changes taking place in the markets, the scale of research on forest product markets is alarmingly low. This review clearly points to a need to significantly increase the volume of academic research and education on the global and regional forest-based product markets.

A challenging issue in landscape ecology is the evaluation of changes in a forest landscape following a disturbance. This evaluation usually entails examining changes in the forest inventory, which represents the best information available for a given forest region. Our aim was to extend existing methods used to evaluate forest inventory to include additional variables, such as value-based forest product options, wood fibre attributes, and ecosystem services. Inclusion of such variables in forest inventory evaluations would allow research results to be presented from an economic perspective, which is often required for policy development and forest management decision-making. We developed a value-based framework to evaluate forest inventory and implemented it in the wood fibre value simulation model. We then used a local data set from Manitoba, Canada, to show how the model can be applied to the mapping of new inventory layers to facilitate the evaluation of landscape changes. Five new inventory layers are mapped including bioenergy and heating value that can be directly used for evaluating landscape changes, and wood density, fibre length, and pulp yield, which can be combined with total wood volume to derive new variables or indices to express changes in landscape conditions. Our model can contribute to the assessment of landscape changes by indicating the values a forest can have when it is used for different conservation or utilization purposes. The model can also support improved decision-making with respect to the management of forest resources.

This paper was published on March 2017, Volume 22, Issue 3, 469–483pp, titled “Identification of structural breaks in the forest product markets: how sensitive are to changes in the Nordic region?” with errors referring to the units related to figure 1. Please see below.

Forests play a fundamental role in the global carbon cycle and can be managed to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and conserve or sequester carbon. Global policy and environmental changes can affect regional consumption of forest products, as well as inter-regional trade of forest goods and services. This study analyzes global and regional change impacts on the production, consumption and trade of forest products in two Nordic countries, Finland and Sweden. Annual data on removal and trade (1964–2012) for roundwood and sawnwood is used to identify structural breaks based on Chow tests. According to the analysis, the time period is divided into two periods: t1 (1964–1980) and t2 (1981–2012). In the first period, breaks occurred in 1975 and 1976 in the Finnish model and no break is found in the Swedish model. In the second period, we identify breaks in 1991 and 1992 for the Finnish model and in 2004, 2005 and 2006 for the Swedish model. Although our findings have broad empirical support, we do not identify any specific incident as a direct cause of the changes in the consumption and trade patterns of the two types of wood in these countries. The models and analysis presented here can serve as methodological tools for policymakers to better understand the effects of structural changes in the production of forest goods and services in the Nordic region and globally.

The cork oak (Quercus suber L.) is harvested for its bark (cork), a highly valuable non-timber forest product. Recurrent cork harvesting is practiced over the lifetime of the tree and constitutes a stressful action that, while artificially promoting cork growth, may severely deplete tree vigor after an exploitation time span. To date, few long-term studies have been conducted regarding the effect of recurrent cork harvests on cork growth rates, and there is a complete lack of knowledge on the effect of the stress, induced by cork harvesting, on the vigor of the cork oak. In this study we propose to address the resilience of the cork oak to cork harvesting, using cork-ring width as an indicator of tree vigor. We use dendrochronological methods to develop an extended cork-ring width series that was analyzed by autoregressive integrated moving average modeling with an intervention analysis approach. We show that cork harvesting represents a human-induced loss of tree resilience only after six consecutive harvests, and that only after a single stochastic cork-harvesting event may trigger a sudden collapse in cork oak vigor. Our results also suggest that the tree (optimum) exploitation period of 110–120 years, which includes more than nine consecutive harvests, extends more than 35 years beyond the tree vigor breakpoint (occurring at the sixth consecutive harvest). Within this time frame, the tree is producing cork instinctively to survive, and its vulnerability to other (a)biotic stresses may increase, leading to untimely cork oak decline. These results suggest that there is a great potential in the time-series analysis of cork-ring widths for the development of tools that may enhance typical cork oak management planning by addressing both economic and ecological objectives.

Climate events pose major challenges to food production and the livelihoods of rural inhabitants in northern Laos, where upland rice using swidden production is an important crop. The onset of the rainy season in this area is one such climate event, and it has occurred earlier and with less regularity in recent years. Not all households are able to cope with these changes. This study examines the ability of local farmers to cope with rice insufficiency. This investigation also clarifies household strategies in dealing with the climate event. We randomly interviewed 63 of 95 household heads, and performed a paired sample t test to examine the significance of differences in three household groups between the 2010 normal climate and the 2011 climate event. The groups were categorized according to rice self-sufficiency in 2011: groups I are households with rice self-sufficiency, group II are those facing a rice shortage of up to 3 months, and group III are those with insufficient rice for over 3 months. We also conducted a one-way ANOVA to examine the significance of differences in livelihood strategies among the three groups. We found that the household labor force was the most important factor in enhancing the villagers’ ability to deal with the climate event and that the level of impact of that event shaped their coping strategies. Households with substantial labor force had more options for coping strategies than those with smaller ones. The villagers faced different levels of impact and adopted different coping strategies accordingly. Non-timber forest product collection was the principle livelihood strategy in response to non-climate factors such as education, access to health services, provision of equipment and clothing, and overcoming the impact of the climate event. Households heavily affected by the early rainy season onset tended to engage in intensive activities such as off-farm activity and outside work, rather than their major livelihood activities in the village (upland crop and livestock production).

The forest conservation organizations in Turkey have recommended changing the classical forest management systems to protect forest biodiversity since 2006. This study discusses the spatio-temporal analysis of forest management activities and land use changes in Yalova Forest Ecosystems, Turkey. We focused on the Yalova City because (a) it is located in a highly urbanized area, northwestern Turkey, (b) forest is a governmental ownership and producing of many non-wood forest product and wildlife species, (c) governmental organizations are encouraged to be decreased clear-cuts to protect forest ecosystems; (d) GIS databases are available in Yalova; (e) Yalova Forestry Administration has a membership of the Mediterranean Model Forest Network in 2011, and (f) many new forest policies will be developed in Turkey after the membership of the model forest . This study used forest management plans of Yalova Forest during 1971–2008 periods and analyzed data in geographic information system (GIS). Results showed that the rate of forest area in the Yalova steadily increased from 53.4 % in 1971 to 61.2 % to 62.5 % between 1994 and 2008 respectively.

We examined if smallholders that immigrated to the Amazon over the last 40 years (highway-era families) and households with historical ties to the region (rubber-era families) adopt different livelihood activities and land-use/land-cover (LULC) patterns, in four communities along the Tapajos River in the Brazilian Amazon. Using quantitative data, we characterized three portfolios of livelihood activities, each associated to different LULC. Both rubber-era and highway-era families practice a wide range of activities from all portfolios; however, families that have been in the region for several generations tend to adopt traditional activities (e.g., fishing, non-timber forest product gathering and sales), while recently settled families tend to practice agrarian activities more intensively (e.g., cattle ranching, sale of non-native crops). We then draw on qualitative data to examine some of the underlying reasons for these differences. While recognizing that livelihoods are complex systems with many influential factors, we reflect on some of the overlooked drivers of livelihood and LULC choices such as knowledge, visions of development, and the immaterial value and symbolic meaning of resources. We also reflect on how they shape intended land management choices and relate to household settlement histories. The implications for regional resource-use planning and future research are mentioned.

Wild mushrooms are recognized as important non-wood forest products in mountainous ecosystems, but their real potential for generating rural economies has not been fully evaluated due to the difficulties in obtaining reliable productivity data, minimizing their true potential as contributor to rural economies. Mushroom yield models based on large data series from Pinus forest ecosystems in the region of Catalonia (Spain), combined with data from the Spanish National Forest Inventory allow us to estimate the potential mushroom productivity by forest ecosystems. The results of 24,500 tons/yr of mushrooms of which 16,300 tons are classified as edible and 7,900 tons are commonly marketed demonstrate the importance of mushroom productions in Catalonian pine forests, mostly located in mountainous areas where the development of agricultural activities is limited. Economic mushroom value is estimated at 48 million € for the edible mushroom and 32 million € for those corresponding to marketable yields, confirming the potential of this non-wood forest product. These production results and corresponding economic values provide a basis for the incorporation of wild mushrooms as significant non-wood forest products in the development of forest policies in mountainous areas.

Pine honeydew honey is an economically important non-wood forest product from eastern Mediterranean Pinus brutia forests, which are also important for timber production. Pine honey is produced by bees that feed on the honeydew secretions of Marchalina hellenica, a scale insect that infests pine stands and feeds on pine sap. The aim of this study was to optimize the joint production of pine honeydew honey and timber by maximizing the soil expectation value of pine stands. The simulation of P. brutia stand dynamics and timber production in healthy and infested stands is based on individual-tree growth and yield models that account for the effect of M. hellenica on tree- and stand-level growth and mortality. The optimization procedure uses a direct search method based on nonlinear programming. The results suggest that pine stands growing on good sites should be managed using rather short rotations and mainly aiming at timber production. In contrast, forest management in medium- and poor-quality sites should aim at longer rotations by taking advantage of the joint production of pine honey and timber assortments. Honey-oriented forest management can be much more profitable than timber production in stands growing on medium and poor sites. Pine honey represents an opportunity to increase the value and economic profitability of P. brutia forests.

Fast growing poplar species enjoy a highly favored position in Iran’s forest product industries. However, information on poplar plantations, such as areas, growing stock and harvest volumes, are largely obtained by non scientific means and poorly executed methods. A few studies have been conducted to obtain data on the capacity of poplar plantations, their extent, existing growing stock, distribution and species choice in three provinces, i.e., Western Azerbaijan, Kurdistan and Hamedan, with relatively well developed management systems. We opted for a cluster method, a standard sampling method for conducting similar investigations, consisting of two phases. In the first phase we collected library information and conducted half-open interviews with villagers. In the second phase field measurements in the villages of these three provinces were carried out. Information from field measurements on growing stock, cultivated areas, dominant species were used to estimate volumes by way of volume and weight tables. Results obtained from the present study indicate that the average annual volume of timber harvested in the three provinces was 697,723 m3, with an average sampling error of 22.7 per cent. This annual volume of poplar timber harvested from the three provinces was estimated to amount to about 25 per cent of overall harvest; at that rate, the overall annual utilization potential of poplar plantations will be 10 million m3, which constitutes a reliable resource of raw timber for use in wood and paper industries.

Lack of information and difficulty in predicting wild edible sporocarp yields is blocking its integration in forest management. In the Mediterranean area, this nontimber forest product has increased its market value, consumption demand, and interest over the last decade. In this work, sampling year and stand age effects are analyzed in order to advance knowledge of edible fungi community structure, dynamics, and production. Weekly autumnal sporocarp monitoring was performed from 1997 to 2011 in a Pinus pinaster managed forest in central Spain. After applying a random stand age-stratified survey, 21 plots of 150 m(2) have been set with three per stand age class. The forest age classes have been defined as follows: 0-10 years, mixture of parent and regenerated trees, 11-20, 21-40, 41-60, 61-90, and over 90 years. A total of 153 species belonging to 56 genera were recorded, 55 of which are edible. The production of edible sporocarps was 19.8 kg ha(-1), representing 31 % of total production. Sporocarp production presents a sharp interannual variability with autumns 62 times more productive than others. The most abundant edible species in terms of fresh weight per hectare has been Lactarius deliciosus with 7.0 kg ha(-1). Edible fungi yields registered a significant decline in 10 years following regenerative cutting. The presence of parent trees significantly increases production with regard to the first class. The highest production of edible species occurs in the middle age, 41-60 years, and in the following classes, a decrease is produced. L. deliciosus production registered differences with age, manifesting in a high yield in young stands (11-20 years) and significant recovery in woodlands near to the cutting.

An 11-year remotely sensed surface albedo dataset coupled with historical meteorological and stand-level forest management data for a variety of stands in Norway’s most productive logging region is used to develop regression models describing temporal changes in forest albedo following clear-cut harvest disturbance events. Datasets are grouped by dominant tree species, and two alternate multiple regression models are developed and tested following a potential-modifier approach. This result in models with statistically significant parameters (p

Impact of Future Climate and Land Use Change on Non-timber Forest Product Provision in Benin, West Africa: Linking Niche-based Modeling with Ecosystem Service Values. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) make a major contribution to the livelihoods of the West African population. However, these ecosystem services are threatened by climate and land use change. Our study aims at 1) the quantification and monetary mapping of important NTFPs, and 2) developing a novel approach to assess the impacts of climate and land use change on the economic benefits derived from these NTFPs. We performed household interviews in northern Benin to gather data on annual quantities of collected NTFPs from the three most important savanna tree species: Adansonia digitata, Parkia biglobosa, and Vitellaria paradoxa. Current market prices of the NTFPs were derived from local markets. We assessed the species’ current and future (2050) occurrence probabilities by calibrating niche-based models with climate and land use data at a 0.1° resolution (cell: ~10 × 10 km). To assess future economic gains and losses, respectively, we linked modeled species’ occurrence probabilities with the spatially assigned monetary values. Highest current annual benefits are obtained from V. paradoxa (USD 54,111 ± 28,126/cell), followed by P. biglobosa (USD 32,246 ± 16,526/cell) and A. digitata (USD 9,514 ± 6,243/cell). The future simulations showed spatially varying impacts of environmental change. In particular A. digitata might benefit in some regions. However, large areas are projected to lose up to 50 % of their current economic value by 2050 with regard to the three species. Our findings provide a first benchmark for local policy-makers to economically compare different land use options and adjust existing management strategies.

The article studies the nature of current policy and management practice in Thailand on vegetation burnings and haze pollution and examines how these take into account heterogeneity and complexity of local conditions and causal factors on the ground. Chang Mai province’s recent haze episodes are used as case study. The country’s policy regime on vegetation burning and haze pollution is characterized as command-and-control and highly regulatory. Authors argue that haze problem is framed by the central and provincial government as a purely an administrative task of control and penalizing perpetrators of fire. This fails to take into account the heterogeneity and complexity of local conditions and drivers of burning occurrences, which in Chang Mai involves a variety of widely diffused forest and farming-based livelihood activities, such as hunting and forest product gathering, swidden farming, and burning of agricultural residues in rice cultivation. This state simplification in policy combines well with and is further reinforced by a centralized, top-down, and institutional landscape and functioning of government in decision-making, enabling the policy to cascade down to the province, districts, and sub-districts basically unaltered. Further, traditional administrative separatism between ministries and their provincial counterparts undermines the possibility of area-wide planning and integration of responses. The authors’ recommend a major policy shift, among others, including components of using local research on causal factors as tool for planning and policy, instituting incentives and reward systems for would-be fire igniters, area-wide local-transboundary approach, and strengthening autonomy of local government bodies. Authors have used documents review, secondary sources, and key informant interviews.

Baobabs (Adansonia digitata) provide products, mainly bark, leaves and fruit, which are used for subsistence purposes and traded to generate cash. Recently, demands for baobab fruit derivatives on the global organic market, namely pulp and seed oil, have increased rapidly, leading to concerns that this may have negative impacts on subsistence users, particularly in areas where there is an existing high dependence on these products, such as West Africa. In contrast, in southern Africa baobab fruit are probably ‘underutilized’ and commercialization would help reduce poverty. This study evaluated the direct-use (subsistence) and income (cash) value of baobab fruit on the livelihoods of baobab fruit harvesters in South Africa. Harvesters were mostly women (98 %), many of whom were unemployed (98 %) and uneducated (70 %). The majority (68 %) received social grants and were involved in informal occupations (55 %), which contributed 35 and 18 % to total annual income respectively. The trade and direct-use value of non-timber forest products contributed 14 and 33 % to annual income, of which, baobab fruit made up 38 and 4 % respectively. Baobab fruit was the only non-timber forest product that had a higher income value (4×) than direct-use value. Cash earned was used to buy food (73 %) and invest in small businesses, suggesting a move from subsistence to cash economy. It is suggested that commercialization of baobab fruit will have far-reaching benefits; and that secured access to trees and investment in local beneficiation will further increase the value of the resource for many marginalized people in southern Africa.

Spatial, Temporal, and Economic Constraints to the Commercial Extraction of a Non–Timber Forest Product: Copaiba (Copaifera spp.) Oleoresin in Amazonian Reserves. The increasing prevalence of government– and NGO–sponsored programs to encourage commercial non–timber forest product (NTFP) extractivism in the humid tropics has highlighted the need for ecological and socioeconomic appraisal of the viability of extractive industries. We adopted a novel integrative approach to examine NTFP resource potential and produced credible landscape–scale estimates of the projected value of an economically important Amazonian NTFP, the medicinal oleoresin of Copaifera trees, within two large contiguous extractive reserves in Brazilian Amazonia. We integrated results derived from previous spatial ecology and harvesting studies with socioeconomic and market data, and mapped the distribution of communities within the reserves. We created anisotropic accessibility models that determined the spatial and temporal access to Copaifera trees in permanently unflooded (terra firme) and seasonally flooded (varzea) forests. Just 64.9 % of the total reserve area was accessible, emphasizing the distinction between the actual resource stock and that which is available to extractors. The density of productive tree species was higher in the varzea forests, but per–tree productivity was greater in the terra firme forests, resulting in similar estimates of oleoresin yield per unit area (64–67 ml ha–1) in both forest types. A greater area of the varzea forests was accessible within shorter travel times of ≤250 minutes; longer travel times allowed access to increasingly greater volumes of oleoresin from the terra firme forests. The estimated total volume of oleoresin accessible within the two reserves was 38,635 liters for an initial harvest, with projected offtake for a subsequent harvest falling to 8,274 liters. A household that extracted just 2 liters of oleoresin per month could generate 5 % of its mean income; market data suggested that certification could increase the value of the resource fivefold. Our approach is valuable in that it incorporates a range of methodologies and quantitatively accounts for the numerous constraints to the commercial viability of NTFP extraction.

Non-timber forest product commercialisation requires information on what and who is involved in markets, but this is rarely documented. This paper presents the findings of a study to assess the structure and dynamics of markets for bay leaf (Cinnamomum tamala Nees and Eberm) in Nepal and in Uttarakhand state in India. Data were collected from key informant interviews with stakeholders from the governments of the two countries, research agencies, user groups and traders associations, from focus group discussion involving 100 farmers and district and wholesale level traders, and from stakeholder meeting and interviews with traders using an open-ended questionnaire in the two countries. It was found that of the 2,500 tons of bay leaf traded in Nepal in 2009, 86 % was exported to India. The total size of the bay leaf market in Uttarakhand is estimated at 1,470 tons, with the spice industry as the main consumer. Nepalese bay leaf sustains the demand in Indian markets that were studied. Processing of leaves into essential oil and powder by wholesale traders takes place in Nepal and India respectively, but no regional trade in essential oil was observed. Three quality grades are sold in markets which are not known to the farmers. The bay leaf trade is increasing, creating an opportunity for farmers to engage in its cultivation. There is a need for transferring market information and improving policy implementation to promote transparent and equitable market linkages that enhance benefits to mountain farmers.

In most developing countries where local community ownership is common, successful forest conservation initiatives must be adapted to engage and train rural communities. Decentralization of decision-making and stewardship by the State is required to maintain forests as a common good with extended benefits to society. Despite a tendency to operate in isolation, three Oaxacan community forest enterprises (CFEs), Textitlan, Ixtlan and Pueblos Mancomunados, have vertically integrated from forest management to retailing furniture through a company: TIP Muebles. This exploratory study aims to provide insight and outline the factors impacting the ability of CFEs to succeed in the marketplace given the fact that each deals with the same regulation structure of public forest policy. The results of this research suggest that the main challenges are related to human capital, regulatory challenges and centralized forest policy for forest product production, the taxation system for timber production, and endogenous factors such as the forest quality and the decisions based on tradition rather than efficiency. In this context, the integration of chains of production is a fact in only a few cases and financial success continues to be slow. The studied CFEs are resilient and slightly surpassing the profitability threshold despite the challenges identified. Adaptation of their decision-making structure allows them to face the changing dynamics of the market. More democratic approaches to decentralization of Mexican forest policy, trust development between social and private enterprises, and an improvement in internal CFEs systems could offer opportunities for improved competitiveness for CFEs. CFE strategies need to be understood as part of a complex rural livelihood where diversification of income generating activities often conflicts with competitive and specialized production.

Potential Management of Chamaedorea seifrizii (Palmae), a Non-timber Forest Product from the Tropical Forest of Calakmul, Southeast Mexico. Leaves and seeds of Chamaedorea (xate) palms are important non-timber forest products (NTFPs). In the Calakmul region (Yucatan Peninsula) of Mexico, several communities have sporadically collected and sold seeds of C. seifrizii since 1980. However, harvesting has intensified recently, raising concerns about overexploitation. To evaluate the economic potential of leaf and seed exploitation in the area, we collected information on abundance, population patterns, and leaf and seed stocks in Ejido Conhuas, a community within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR). Then we combined these data with current market values and hypothetical management regimes obtained from the literature for leaves and seeds. Conducting a quantitative analysis of 43 0.1ha plots with differences in forest and soil type, we assessed the abundance of C. seifrizzi in the area. We also conducted interviews to estimate the importance of xate in the local economy. We found C. seifrizii density to be highly variable, with a mean (±SE) of 295 (±35), with forest type being the most influential factor. Population structures differ between forest types, with healthy populations in medium and lower forest. We found a mean density of leaves of harvestable size of 3,750 (±380) leaves ha-1, while seed production was 1.5 (±0.3) kg/ha-1 of fresh seeds. Assuming sustainable harvest rates of 30–50% for leaves and 80% for seeds, one hectare of forest could generate USD 7.0–15.9/ha-1. Considering the number of households (102) and 10% of the total area managed each year (5,700 ha), this harvest could generate a household income of USD 391–838 annually. At the moment, xate trade represents a minor component in the economy of the community, but given the area’s extensive forest (>57,000 ha), the resource abundance, and the low human population, we believe the NTFPs derived from C. seifrizii have a potentially great economic impact in the area. Manejo potencial de Chamaedorea seifrizii (Palmae): Un producto forestal no maderable del bosque tropical de Calakmul, sureste de Mexico. Las hojas y frutos de las palmas Chamaedorea (xate) representan un importante producto forestal no maderable. En la region de Calakmul, varias comunidades han recolectado y vendido esporadicamente semillas de C. seifrizii. Sin embargo, la cosecha se ha intensificado y hay preocupaciones de sobreexplotacion. Para evaluar el potencial de la cosecha de hojas y semillas en la region de Calakmul realizamos una investigacion de abundancia y de su potencial economico en el Ejido Conhuas, una comunidad dentro de la Reserva de la Biosfera Calakmul. Evaluamos la abundancia de C. seifrizii en 43 sitios de 0.1 ha con diferencias en tipos de bosque y de suelo. Encontramos que la densidad de C. seifrizii es muy variable con una media (±ES) de 295 (±35), siendo el tipo de bosque el factor mas importante. La estructura de la poblacion difiere entre tipos de bosques con las mejores poblaciones en selva mediana y baja. Las hojas cosechables fueron muy abudantes con una media de 3,750 (±380) leaves ha-1, mientras que la produccion de frutos fue de 1.5 (±0.3) kg/ha de fruto fresco. Asumiendo 30%–50% hojas of leaves and 80% de frutos como maximo de cosecha sustentable, la extraccion de C. seifrizii generaria USD 7.0–15.9/ha. Considerando un numero de familias (102) y el manejo de un 10% del area total de la comunidad (5,700 has), la cosecha de xate podria generar un ingreso annual de USD 391–838 anuales. Creemos que C. seifrizii representa un PFNM con un gran potencial economico.

Rattan, an important non-timber forest product, is a flexible palm used in weaving baskets or furniture. Rattan is light yet sturdy, making it suitable for furniture that can be moved often. Bangladesh has a large number of rattan-based enterprises. This paper reports a case study carried out in Sylhet City Corporation of north-eastern Bangladesh, exploring the production, financial profitability and marketing of rattan-based products, and the problems and priorities of rattan-based enterprises as well as their potential contribution to employment opportunity. A sample survey was conducted of 58 randomly selected rattan-based enterprises with entrepreneurs personally interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Based on the total investment, the enterprises were divided into large, medium and small categories. Three origins of rattan (Local, Myanmar and Indonesia) and five species were used by the enterprises to produce 29 rattan-based product types. Rattan products were divided into three basic categories, viz. domestic utensils, domestic decorative articles and others for which uses are not specific. Among the three rattan origins, processing cost of local and Myanmar rattan species products was less and more articles were sold than for Indonesia rattan species. Financial analysis indicated that rattan-based enterprises are a profitable and attractive option for local socio-economic development. Entrepreneurs’ views on major problems and issues in rattan-based product trading and suggested measures to improve the condition of rattan-based enterprises also collected. Rattan-based enterprises will generate more domestic revenue, foreign exchange and employment if policies are adopted to provide the enterprises with a reliable source of raw materials and technical and financial assistance from Government to NGOs to sell the products, and expand market facilities in both local and international markets.

A pilot study of leaf outline morphometrics was carried out on populations of five species of Heteropsis located in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke near Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil: H. flexuosa (Kunth) G. S. Bunting, H. macrophylla A. C. Sm., H. spruceana Schott, H. steyermarkii G. S. Bunting and H. tenuispadix G. S. Bunting. The aim of the study was to investigate quantitative methods for discriminating species within a local area based on vegetative morphology in a genus where fertile parts are often difficult to find in the field; this study focussed on leaf outline shape. Using digital images of 347 leaves, outlines were captured as coordinates using the TpsDig software and analysed using Elliptic Fourier Analysis (EFA). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to reduce the 160 elliptic Fourier coefficient descriptors to a smaller number of independent shape variables corresponding to the principal component axes. The first nineteen shape variables (constrained by the smallest species sample, N = 20) were then subjected to Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) to find new axes that would discriminate the five species to the maximum extent. The first six shape variables were visualised by a reification procedure in order to illustrate their characteristic contribution to the total shape variation within all five species. The results showed that the mean shapes of all five species were significantly different, but shape variation within each species overlapped with the others. Percentage assignment of individuals to their correct species was encouragingly high given that only outline shape was used, but was not high enough overall to provide reliable identification. Elimination of one species (H. steyermarkii) using easily observed qualitative vegetative characters improved discrimination of the remaining four. The investigation of new approaches to identification is potentially valuable for conservation of natural populations — the root fibre of Heteropsis is extracted from primary forest and is a valuable non-timber forest product that forms the basis for an important local industry in Amazonia.

Impact of Women’s Harvest Practices onPandanus guillaumetiiin Madagascar’s Lowland Rainforests.Pandanus guillaumetii B.C. Stone is endemic to the east coast rainforests of Madagascar. The plant is an important non-timber forest product (NTFP) for the local population living near these forests, and its leaves are collected by women to be woven into mats. These mats have economic value and are also used for daily activities. At present, little is known about how local harvesting practices impact this plant species. In this study, we describe women’s local harvest practices and quantify their impact on the P. guillaumetii population. We carried out plant inventories as well as interviews and participatory observations with local people harvesting P. guillaumetii in two villages with different population densities in the Manompana region. Inventories were conducted at varying distances from the villages in order to better understand the influence of human pressure on the plant population. The results suggest that local communities apply practices that tend to minimize the harvest impact on the plant. Harvesting seems to have no effect on the actual density of P. guillaumetii. However, the availability of plants with leaves of sufficient quality for mat production is influenced by human pressure. Considering the decreasing number of plants suitable for handicraft, we assume that their availability in the long term may not fulfill the needs of the local people.

Although agriculture generates 16% of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions, it also has the potential to sequester large quantities of emissions through land use management options such as agroforestry. Whilst there is an extensive amount of agroforestry literature, little has been written on the economic consequences of adopting silvopastoral systems in northern Australia. This paper reports the financial viability of adopting complementary agroforestry systems in the low rainfall region of northern Australia. The analysis incorporates the dynamic tradeoffs between tree and pasture growth, likely forest product yields, carbon sequestration and livestock methane emissions in a bioeconomic model. The results suggest there are financial benefits for landholders who integrate complementary agroforestry activities into existing grazing operations at even modest carbon prices.

Livelihood and Conservation Aspects of Non-wood Forest Product Collection in the Shaxi Valley, Southwest China. The Shaxi Valley in Yunnan Province, P.R. China, is inhabited by Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups. We found a clear dichotomy between household strategies in the valley bottom and the mountain areas, with significantly lower household income in the mountains. The majority Bai people live predominantly in the fertile valley floor and cultivate rice, keep livestock, and commonly pursue off-farm work. Other ethnic groups live in more remote mountainous areas of the Shaxi Valley, where the collection of non-wood forest products, especially wild mushrooms, plays an important role in securing livelihoods. However, only households in the valley's central villages engage in the profitable non-wood forest product trade. Mushroom populations appear to be less vulnerable to commercial harvest than the rapidly declining wild medicinal plant populations. Due to this decline, local farmers have gained interest in cultivating medicinal plants, but only if risks are low and if financial and technical support is provided. Encouraging the cultivation of medicinal plants appears to be an appropriate means of sustainable community development.

A study was conducted in central Ethiopian highland in 2008 to investigate the consumption of house construction wood, the tree species preference for construction wood and the forthcoming conditions of this forest product and possible strategies for future availability. Twenty-four iron-roofed houses and twenty-eight thatch-roofed houses belonging to thirty-six farm households were investigated for types, volumes and sources of construction wood used. It was found that an average farmhouse with a floor space of 57 m2 consumed about 13.7 m3 of wood. Both floor space and wood consumptions vary with house types. An average iron-roofed house with floor space of 51.9 m2 consumed 16.8 m3 of wood and an average thatch-roofed house with mean floor space of 28.6 m3 consumed 3.2 m3 of wood. Family size and floor space were the major factors influencing construction wood consumption. An average living house was composed of woods of 39.3% Juniperus procera, 5.6% Cupressus lusitanica, 29.2% Eucalyptus globulus and 26% Eucalyptus camaldulensis. The wood volume from the first two species and half that of the third species were obtained from state forest which is currently banned from any construction wood extraction and hence there is a shortage of around 59.5% of woods. We suggest the promotion of various tree planting approaches to increase the wood supply and the use of alternative local materials like soil bricks for house construction.

Returns from Harvesting a Commercial Non-timber Forest Product andParticular Characteristics of Harvesters and Their Strategies:Aquilaria crassnaand Agarwood in Lao PDR. This paper explores associations between the returns from harvesting a commercial non-timber forest product and particular characteristics of harvesters and their strategies. Data originate from a survey in Laos of the harvest and trade of agarwood, a highly valuable commodity harvested mainly from tree species in the genus Aquilaria. Five groups of harvesters were identified, with considerable differences in returns between them. Foreign harvesters, i.e., ethnic Vietnamese, earned approximately USD 13 per day on average, while nonlocal full-time harvesters earned approximately USD 9, and nonlocal part-time harvesters USD 7 per day. Local people earn approximately USD 5 per day and only USD 4 if harvesting only took place in village forests. Factors observed to determine returns are market access, especially access to national and international markets, and knowledge and experience in trading, harvesting, and the organization of harvesting trips. It is suggested that interventions should be made to address these factors, to level out returns from harvesting, and to increase the share of returns captured by local people.

The forest flora of eastern North America includes many herbaceous plant species traded in domestic and international medicinal markets. Conservation concerns surrounding wild-collection exist and transitioning to cultivation in agroforestry systems has potential economic and ecological benefits. Costs and revenues associated with adopting forest cultivation were modeled for eight North American medicinal forest plants. Sensitivity analysis examined profit potential in relation to (1) discount rates; (2) propagation methods; (3) prices; (4) growing period; (5) production costs; and (6) yields. Results indicate that intensive husbandry of six of eight species would be unprofitable at recent (1990–2005) price levels. Exceptions are American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.), and under certain circumstances (e.g., maximum historic prices, low production costs) goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.). Direct marketing to consumers and retailers might improve grower profits, but is undermined by the availability of cheaper, wild-collected product. We suggest that the North American medicinal plant industry could play a key role in facilitating any transition from wild to cultivated product, perhaps through development of a certification and labeling program that brands “forest cultivated” products. This could generate price premiums, to be passed along to growers, but must be accompanied by aggressive consumer education. A “forest cultivated” certification and labeling program has potential to benefit industry and consumers if assurances regarding product identity and quality are a central feature. Plant species that are not viable candidates for commercial cultivation due to limited consumer demand (i.e., species with “shallow,” erratic markets) are best addressed through proactive government and industry initiatives involving targeted harvester education programs.

This paper reports the results of a study that explores the relationship between farm woodland owners’ stated intentions for owning woodland, and the structure and composition of these woodlands in the states of Illinois, Indiana and Iowa in the upper Midwest of the United States. Data from two sample-based inventories conducted by the USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program were combined for this analysis—the FIA forest resources inventory and the National Woodland Owner Survey (NWOS). We looked for relationships between product value and investment in woodlands, as reflected in volumes and tree quality. We also examined whether measures of diversity reflected specific management focus. Our results partially supported our hypotheses. Woodland-focused ownership reasons were found to have larger volumes and individual tree sizes. We found that a passive woodland ownership reason—that woods were “part of the farm”—generally had lower volumes per hectare. Although we were not able to differentiate between different forest product classes and measures of volume, we did find that those landowners who harvested veneer had more volume than those who harvested for firewood. Woodland owners who salvage-harvested their woodlands—a harvesting reason that is more reactive than proactive—exhibited lower volumes per hectare than those who harvested for more proactive, product-focused reasons. Biodiversity was also found to be related to the ownership focus and harvest intent. Generally, there was lower diversity in overstory species when the woodland was viewed merely as “part of the farm,” when the product harvested was fence posts and when timber was harvested for salvage or land clearing. The small sample size limits our analysis, but we can conclude that focusing the woodland owners on management of their woodlands—regardless of what the specific management goals might be—should increase productivity and biodiversity of those woodlands.

I examined how Sulawesi Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) respond in terms of their diet and activity patterns to anthropogenic habitat alteration in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia. Anthropogenic habitat alteration comprised clearing of forest for agriculture and small-scale forest product collection. I quantified the diet and activity of 2 groups (CH and Anca), occupying habitats with different levels of alteration, via scan sampling. Tree abundance, key food specific density, and fruit production were greater in the minimally altered habitat (CH), substantiating the characterization of the group’s habitat as higher quality. For the group in the heavily altered habitat (Anca), alternative foods, e.g., insects, fungus, young and mature leaves, shoots, and stems, accounted for a significantly greater proportion of the diet. Dietary diversity is significantly lower in the Anca group, with 52% of their diet being palm fruits from Arenga pinnata. The activity patterns of the Anca group—more time foraging, less time moving, and more time resting than the CH group—reflect the lower resource availability in their habitat and their reliance on more alternative food items, coupled with their extremely small group size (6–9 individuals). The group may be at the optimal size in which foraging efficiency is maximized for the habitat, a response, in conjunction with dietary and behavioral flexibility, to alteration of their habitat. The results are contextualized with respect to the conservation value of human-modified landscapes.

As a major importer of forest products, Japan has a significant influence on the global development of forest certification. We examined characteristics of the certified forest products market in Japan. In addition to analysing chain of custody certificate holders using published directories, we conducted a nationwide survey from October to December 2005 of 132 companies that had obtained a chain of custody certificate from one of the certifying bodies in Japan: the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification, or the Sustainable Green Ecosystem Council. The number of chain of custody certificates has increased since the early 2000s and reached 304 by the end of 2005. FSC-issued certification has dominated certificate distribution, granting 93% of all certificates. Paper products companies have constituted the majority of chain of custody certification holders, receiving two-thirds of the certificates issued. Of survey respondents, 77% had sold certified forest products in 2004. The sales value of certified products reported by 84 respondents totalled 24.3 billion JPY, of which paper products accounted for 90%. The main certified products sold were paper for plain paper copy and printing, wood chips as raw paper material, and printed material such as environmental reports and calendars. Certified wood products such as sawn goods represented only a small proportion of sales. As with companies in Europe and North America, it was not possible for most Japanese companies to receive premium prices for certified forest products. The unique market characteristics of Japan and Japan’s influence on the certified products trade are discussed.

While the cumulative effects of the actions of multiple owners have long been recognized as critically relevant to efforts to maintain sustainable forests at the landscape scale, few studies have addressed these effects. We used the HARVEST timber harvest simulator to predict the cumulative effects of four owner groups (two paper companies, a state forest and non-industrial private owners) with different management objectives on landscape pattern in an upper Michigan landscape managed primarily for timber production. We quantified trends in landscape pattern metrics that were linked to Montreal Process indicators of forest sustainability, and used a simple wildlife habitat model to project habitat trends. Our results showed that most trends were considered favorable for forest sustainability, but that some were not. The proportion of all age classes and some forest types moved closer to presettlement conditions. The trend for the size of uneven-aged patches was essentially flat while the average size of patches of the oldest and youngest age classes increased and the size of patches of the remaining age classes decreased. Forest fragmentation generally declined, but edge density of age classes increased. Late seral forest habitat increased while early successional habitat declined. The owners use different management systems that cumulatively produce a diversity of habitats. Our approach provides a tool to evaluate such cumulative effects on other landscapes owned by multiple owners. The approach holds promise for helping landowner groups develop and evaluate cooperative strategies to improve landscape patterns for forest sustainability.

The present and future well-being of the world's forest dwelling populations depends on their ability to gain livelihood resources from their immediate environment. Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products has been promoted by conservationists and development agencies as a feasible strategy for forest dwellers that does not compromise the resource base. Yet surveys of actual resource use suggest that for poorer resource-dependent communities without access to markets, non-timber forest products can only ever represent a safety-net activity and a supplementary income source. Others argue that resource availability, in terms of the diversity and productivity of the forest, is the key parameter in realizing a contribution of forest products to well-being. This paper examines the scope and heterogeneity of forest product use to reveal whether resource availability necessarily provides the context for significant contributions to well-being of forest dwellers. We present data from an area of tropical rainforest, close to Iquitos in Peru, which was previously shown to have high potential value. We find, through a census survey of households within a forest reserve area, that non-timber forest products provide only a relatively small portion of income and that only a small proportion of available products are actually commercialized, despite apparent market availability. We show that the low rates of commercialization can be explained by unequal access capital assets used for extraction, to natural resources themselves, and to product markets. They are also explained by the concentration of capital-poor households on subsistence gathering activities. The value of destructive uses of forests, both logging and agriculture, remain higher than returns from non-timber products. This research demonstrates that although non-timber forest products are an important livelihood source, market integration and commercialization is not everywhere an appropriate or realistic strategy.

The three major components of forest biotechnology addressed in this paper are asexual propagation, genomics and genetic engineering (GE). Forest biotechnology offers potential that cannot be realized from conventional breeding because of the long life of forest trees and because of the long time required to make genetic gains through tree improvement programs. Most of the biotechnology research in forest trees has concentrated on genetically variable traits that give a relative quick return on investment: growth, form, insect, disease and herbicide resistance, and wood properties. In the long run, other modified traits should have greater value than is obtained solely from timber management. At the tree or forest level, some of those traits will address carbon sequestration, bioenergy, bioremediation, biopulping and species restoration. At the gene level within a tree, the types of potential gains will include pharmaceuticals, resins, latexes, oils, flavonoids, and foodstuff, inclusive of increased fruit quantity and quality and the sugars and starches embedded in the cell walls. With the advent of nanotechnology, trees of the future will be dissected to form every wood product that is now commercially available and, in addition, a multitude of new products will appear.

Management to preserve biodiversity while allowing resource extraction must be tailored to the taxa impacted by harvest. Yet millions of kilograms of mosses, liverworts, some lichens and an occasional vascular plant are harvested from the forests of the Pacific Northwest of North America each year without an adequate understanding of which species are impacted by harvest. Research has focused on epiphytic bryophytes as the primary target of harvest, but the habitats and substrates actually impacted by harvest and the species sold as “moss” have never been determined. To determine if the species being researched are the same as those that are actually sold, we compared the relative abundance and species composition of 17 commercially sold bags of moss with those from 33 field sites in the Oregon Coast and Cascade Ranges on which moss harvest research had previously been conducted. Most species found in the purchased bags had been previously reported from the field studies of what were thought to be commercially harvestable species, including all of the most frequently harvested taxa. However, several new species were found to be commercially harvested and more log and valley hardwood species were found than were previously believed to be harvested. Proper management will require harvest impact studies for the species found in these additional habitats. All nontimber forest products involving mixtures of various species should be periodically surveyed at the point of sale to determine which species are actually being harvested.

Nontimber forest products (NTFPs) represent an important source of income to millions of people in tropical forest regions, but some NTFP species have decreased in number and become endangered due to overexploitation. There is increasing concern that the planting stocks of Dyera polyphylla and Aquilaria filaria are not sufficient to sustain the yield of NTFPs and promote forest conservation. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of two arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, Glomus clarum and Gigaspora decipiens, on the early growth of two NTFP species, D. polyphylla and A. filaria, under greenhouse conditions. The seedlings of both species were inoculated with G. clarum or G. decipiens, or uninoculated (control) under greenhouse conditions. Percentage of AM colonization, plant growth, survival rate, and nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations were measured after 180 days of growth. The percentage of AM colonization of D. polyphylla and A. filaria ranged from 87 to 93% and from 22 to 39%, respectively. Colonization by G. clarum and G. decipiens increased plant height, diameter, and shoot and root dry weights. Shoot N and P concentrations of the seedlings were increased by AM colonization by as much as 70-153% and 135-360%, respectively. Survival rates were higher in the AM-colonized seedlings at 180 days after transplantation than in the control seedlings. The results suggest that AM fungi can accelerate the establishment of the planting stocks of D. polyphylla and A. filaria, thereby promoting their conservation ecologically and sustaining the production of these NTFPs economically.