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The New Zealand Government requires gross emissions of biogenic methane (CH4) to be reduced to 10% below 2017 levels by 2030. However, the amount of CH4 emissions reported in the ‘Manure Management’ category of New Zealand’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory has increased by 123% since 1990. The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of treating farm dairy effluent (FDE) with polyferric sulphate (PFS) on CH4 emissions. The effect of treating FDE with PFS on CH4 emissions was measured at four scales: (i) 1-L gas jars in the laboratory, (ii) 1.1-m-deep × 150-mm-diameter pipe microcosms in the laboratory, (iii) large 3.4-m-deep × 0.47-m-diameter pipes on-farm, and (iv) 2-m-deep × 8.4-m-diameter (100,000 L) commercial effluent storage tanks on a farm. Gas emissions were captured by repeated discrete sampling and CH4 concentrations were determined by gas chromatography. We discovered that treating FDE with PFS at an average rate of 220 mg Fe L−1 of FDE reduced CH4 emissions by up to 99% and that this effect continued for an extended period of time (up to 2 months) after treatment. The PFS treatment also reduced CO2 emissions by approximately 50% and reduced hydrogen sulphide emissions. PFS treatment resulted in a small increase in nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, but these emissions were very low and only represented

The biennial report of Vietnam includes updated information on the greenhouse gas emissions for the base years which are specified by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for reporting on greenhouse gas emissions by member nations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The estimation of greenhouse gas emissions in general and carbon emissions in particular in the field of land use, land use change, and forestry using advanced technology to provide the input data was recommended. Remote sensing technology with transparency, multi-time characteristics, and wide coverage is useful in this area. An experiment on carbon emission estimation was carried out based on land cover change over ten years between 2002 and 2012. The results obtained by remote sensing data classification for the land cover categories achieved a reliability of 68% for the year 2002 and 67% for the year 2012. Data in relation to the land cover change, soil zoning, and ecological/climate zoning in the Vietnamese mainland, through the process of integrating, processing, and synthesizing data, and using the reported activity data and carbon emission coefficients, were input into the Agriculture and Land Use Greenhouse Gas Inventory Software for carbon emission estimations based on the quality control and quality assurance work.

The transparency framework under the Paris Agreement hinges to a large extent on the capacities for developing countries to regularly update their national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories. The present study aims to understand how such capacities are developed at the organizational level and how this process is influenced by changes in the institutional environments. To this end, we selected the case of Indonesia, a country where the task of producing a national GHG inventory was once outsourced to experts but is now managed within the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. This paper probes why and how this is possible through two different lenses: a model of strategic issue diagnosis and the framework for implementation analysis. Based on data obtained through participant observation, interviews, and document reviews, both approaches were vital in studying the importance of clarity and consistency of basic policy decisions. This study also highlighted the role of capacity development and found that these factors interacted with each other to create positive impacts on the implementation of a national GHG inventory in Indonesia. The analytical frameworks we used can be applied to contexts in other countries. While the model of strategic issue diagnosis enables us to check each aspect of issue interpretations by decision-makers and other organizational participants (urgency, feasibility, and interdependence), the framework for implementation analysis assists with determining if the necessary conditions exist for effective policy implementation. These results are useful for governments and/or donor agencies to identify priority areas of intervention.

We used the Agriculture and Land Use National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Software to estimate the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the Nigerian agriculture sector in 2010. We went ahead to project future GHG emissions up to 2050. Two alternative GHG mitigation scenarios such as moderate (MS) and aggressive (AS) scenarios were developed and examined. Our results showed that total GHG emissions from Nigerian agriculture in 2010 were around 34.9 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent. GHG emissions from livestock accounted for about 69.2 % of the total emissions, making it the largest source of GHG emissions in the sector. Nigeria’s agriculture GHG emissions are expected to increase by 94 % in 2050 relative to 2010 levels. Mitigation strategies in the Nigerian agriculture sector that do not compromise food security are limited. However, with the implementation of different GHG mitigation strategies in the alternative scenarios, emissions are expected to fall by around 13.2 % and 26.7 % by 2050 in the MS and AS, respectively, compared to the baseline scenario. While the mitigation potentials are significant, we argue that robust and dedicated policies are required to accelerate climate-smart agriculture in Nigeria. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (10.1007/s13280-019-01293-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorised users.

While some countries disaggregate N2O emission factors for urine and dung deposited onto pastures, in Canada, distinct N2O emission factors for beef cattle urine and dung have not been defined. To help address this knowledge gap, we conducted a 1-year study to quantify N2O fluxes from beef cattle urine and dung patches on a semiarid tame pasture in western Canada, as well as to quantify the N2O emission factors (EF3) for urine and dung as the percentage of applied N emitted as N2O-N. Urine and dung were deposited when soil water-filled pore space was nearly 60%, a wet soil condition for the grazing season in the semiarid study region, which led to a burst of N2O from urine in the first 14 days of the study (42% of total N emitted). Urine emitted more cumulative N2O (P

Soil organic carbon (SOC) cycling schemes used in land surface models (LSMs) typically account only for the effects of net primary production and heterotrophic respiration1. To demonstrate the significance of omitting soil redistribution in SOC accounting, sequestration and emissions, we modified the SOC cycling scheme RothC (ref. 2) to include soil erosion. Net SOC fluxes with and without soil erosion for Australian long-term trial sites were established and estimates made across Australia and other global regions based on a validated relation with catchment-scale soil erosion. Assuming that soil erosion is omitted from previous estimates of net C flux, we found that SOC erosion is incorrectly attributed to respiration. On this basis, the Australian National Greenhouse Gas inventory overestimated the net C flux from cropland by up to 40% and the potential (100 year) C sink is overestimated by up to 17%. We estimated global terrestrial SOC erosion to be 0.3–1.0 Pg C yr−1 indicating an uncertainty of −18 to −27% globally and +35 to −82% regionally relative to the long-term (2000–2010) terrestrial C flux of several LSMs. Including soil erosion in LSMs should reduce uncertainty in SOC flux estimates3,4 with implications for CO2 emissions, mitigation and adaptation strategies and interpretations of trends and variability in global ecosystems5.

Cultivated wetland rice fields are a source of methane (CH4) emissions. To estimate CH4 emissions and develop policies to reduce such emissions, information on water management at the farm level is crucial. It is known that farmers implement midseason drainage (MD) to increase rice yields and save water. However, little is known about whether MD is carried out in soils where CH4 emissions are high and how part-time status will influence management. The objective of this study is to identify factors that determine MD implementation using a binomial logistic regression model based on a farm-level survey in Japan and to indicate possible changes in estimates of CH4 emissions, accounting for current water management practices. The implementation rates were significantly higher where the soil types were classified as having the potential for high CH4 emissions. Under current water management practices, the duration of MD and the percentage of continuous flooding were 5 to 7 days longer and approximately 7 % higher, respectively, than the values used by the Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan, which in turn are used to report greenhouse gas emissions to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. By accounting for current water conditions with the Tier 2 method, this study indicates that national estimates of CH4 emissions from rice straw application areas could be lowered by 12.7 %. These results may contribute to the development of a mitigation policy that will help to further reduce CH4 emissions.

Avoiding double counting of emission reductions is a key policy concern to Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Double counting of emission reductions can occur when a single greenhouse gas emission reduction or removal, achieved through a mechanism issuing units, is accounted more than once towards attaining mitigation pledges. We systematically assess how double counting can occur and how it could be addressed. We identify that double issuance – the issuance of two units for the same reductions – and double claiming – the accounting of the same reductions both in a greenhouse gas inventory and in units towards attaining a mitigation pledge – are the most important forms of double counting. They can occur not only directly, but in rather indirect ways which can be challenging to identify. Addressing double counting effectively requires international coordination in three areas: accounting of units, design of mechanisms that issue units, and consistent tracking and reporting on units. While international agreement on principles for accounting and mechanism design is crucial to preventing double counting, the governance arrangements for implementation and international oversight could vary. This article discusses options and makes recommendations for rules to address double counting in two distinct periods: through 2020 and post-2020 under a potential new international climate regime.

The high quality inventory is an important step to greenhouse gas emission mitigation. The inventory quality is estimated by means of the uncertainty analysis. The level of uncertainty depends upon the reliability of activity data and the parameters used. An attempt has been made to improve the accuracy of the estimates through a shift from production-based method (IPCC Tier 1) (IPCC 2000) to enhanced combination of production-based and mass balance methods (IPCC Tier 2) (IPCC 2006) in the estimation of emissions from operations with oil that are key in the national greenhouse gas inventory of the Russian Federation. The IPCC Tier 2 (IPCC 2006) was adapted for the national conditions. The greenhouse gas emissions were calculated for 1990 to 2009 with the use of both methods. The quantitative uncertainty assessment of the calculations was performed, and the outcomes were compared. The comparison showed that the estimates made with the use of higher tier method resulted in higher accuracy and lower uncertainties (26 % respectively compared to previously derived 54 %).

Urban areas are the main sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Previous studies have identified the effectiveness of better urban design on mitigating climate change and land-use patterns in cities as important factors in reducing GHG by local governments. However, studies documenting the link between land-use and GHG emis- sions are scant. Therefore, this study explores the driving forces of land-use change and GHG emission increments in urban areas and investigates their correlations. The study area, Xinzhuang, is a satellite city of Taipei that has rapidly urbanized in the past few decades. Twenty-one potential variables were selected to determine the driving forces of land-use change and GHG emission increments by bino- mial logistic regression based on the investigation data of national land use in 1996 and 2007. The correlation of land-use change and GHG increments was examined by Spearman rank-order analysis. Results of logistic regres- sion analysis identified that population and its increasing density rate are main driving forces on both land-use change and GHG increments. The Spearman rank corre- lation matrix indicates that fluctuating urbanization level is significantly correlated with the increase of total GHG emissions, the emissions of residence, commerce, and transportation sectors in neighborhoods; and the emissions of residence and transportation sectors seem closely con- nected to current urbanization level. The findings suggest that relationships among land-use, urbanization, and GHG emissions in urban areas vary greatly according to resi- dence and transportation characteristics. Land-based miti- gation may provide the most viable mechanism for reducing GHG emissions through residence and transpor- tation sectors.

Purpose This study provides a detailed, process-based life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory of an ornamental tree production system for urban forestry. The success of large-scale tree planting initiatives for climate protection depends on projects being net sinks for CO2 over their entire life cycle. However, previous assessments of urban tree planting initiatives have not accounted for the inputs required for tree production in nurseries, which include greenhouse systems, irrigation, and fertilization. A GHG inventory of nursery operations for tree production is a necessary step to assess the life cycle benefits or drawbacks of large-scale tree planting activities.

Climate change negotiations, assessments, and greenhouse gas inventory guidelines have all but bypassed bamboo. Disallowing stands of tree-like bamboos as forests disparages their function in the carbon (C) cycle, and disregards pillars of smallholder livelihoods. Exposing bamboo not as a panacea, but as an overlooked option for C conservation, sequestration, and adaptation, we screen details of distribution, morphology, growth, physiology, and impacts for pertinence to climate change. Additional to 40 million hectares of existing bamboo forests, many potential host countries for C projects harbor suitable sites. Definitions, methods and default values, such as the root/shoot- ratio, biomass conversion factors, allometric equations and sampling variables need adjusting. Rapid maturation, persistent rhizomes, a rich palette of species, and wind-firmness may mitigate risk. Bamboos can accommodate agro-and urban forestry, and reign in unsustainable shifting cultivation. Distribution functions of bamboo biomass stocks and growths do not deviate drastically from those of trees. If anything, bamboo stocks are slightly lower, and growths slightly higher, with medians of 87 t*ha−1 and 10.5 t*ha−1*yr−1, respectively. However, bamboo’s outstanding socio-economic effects might well determine its future in mitigation and adaptation. Early, continuous yields, selective harvesting on even small parcels of land, low capital and high labor intensity, virtually 100% conversion efficiency to about 1,500 products, and, typically, 75% of economic returns benefiting rural people are advantageous attributes. Regional studies on suitability, silviculture, yields, economics, risk, and C assessment would strengthen bamboo’s function as ‘the poor man’s timber’ and promote its niche as the smallholder’s C sink.

The greenhouse gas inventory of the European Communities and its estimation of the uncertainty is built from 15 individual and independent greenhouse gas inventories. This presents a particular challenge and is possible only if homogeneous information is available for all member states and if a proper evaluation of correlation between member states is performed. To this end, we present a methodology that estimates a quantitative measure for the aggregated Tier-level as well as the uncertainty for the main categories in the agriculture sector. In contrast to the approach suggested in the IPCC guidelines, which uses uncertainty estimates for activity data and emissions factors for each source category, the method presented uses quantitative information from individual parameters used in the inventory calculations, in combination with a well defined procedure to aggregate the information. Not surprisingly, N2O emissions from agricultural soils are found to dominate the uncertainty. The results demonstrate the importance of correlation, if uncertainties are combined for the whole of Europe. The biggest challenge seems to be to conceptually harmonize the uncertainty estimates for the activity data (which tend to be underestimated) and emission factors (which tend to be overestimated).

Methodology and geo-information technology for spatial analysis of processes of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from mobile and stationary sources of the energy sector at the level of elementary plots are developed. The methodology, which takes into account the territorial specificity of point, line, and area sources of emissions, is based on official statistical data surveys. The spatial distribution of emissions and their structure for the main sectors of the energy sector in the territory of the Lviv region of Ukraine are analyzed. The relative uncertainties of emission estimates obtained are calculated using knowledge of the spatial location of emission sources and following the Tier 1 and Tier 2 approaches of IPCC methodologies. The sensitivity of total relative uncertainty to change of uncertainties in input data uncertainties is studied for the biggest emission point sources. A few scenarios of passing to the alternative energy generation are considered and respective structural changes in the structure of greenhouse gas emissions are analyzed. An influence of these structural changes on the total uncertainty of greenhouse gas inventory results is studied.

The Greenhouse Gas Inventory for the United Kingdom currently uses a simple carbon-flow model, CFLOW, to calculate the emissions and removals associated with forest planting since 1920. Here, we aim to determine whether a more complex process-based model, the BASic FORest (BASFOR) simulator, could be used instead of CFLOW. The use of a more complex approach allows spatial heterogeneity in soils and weather to be accounted for, but places extra demands on uncertainty quantification. We show how Bayesian methods can be used to address this problem.

An uncertainty assessment of the Austrian greenhouse gas inventory provided the basis for this analysis. We isolated the factors that were responsible for the uncertainty observed, and compared our results with those of other countries. Uncertainties of input parameters were used to derive the uncertainty of the emission estimate. Resulting uncertainty using a Monte Carlo approach was 5.2% for the emission levels of 2005 and 2.4 percentage points for the 1990–2005 emission trend. Systematic uncertainty was not assessed. This result is in the range expected from previous experience in Austria and other countries. The determining factor for the emission level uncertainty (not the trend uncertainty) is the uncertainty associated with soil nitrous oxide N2O emissions. Uncertainty of the soil N2O release rate is huge, and there is no agreement even on the magnitude of the uncertainty when country comparisons are made. In other words, reporting and use of N2O release uncertainty are also different between countries; this is important, as this single factor fully determines a country’s national greenhouse gas inventory uncertainty. Inter-country comparisons of emission uncertainty are thus unable to reveal much about a country’s inventory quality. For Austria, we also compared the results of the Monte Carlo approach to those obtained from a simpler error propagation approach, and find the latter to systematically provide lower uncertainty. The difference can be explained by the ability of the Monte Carlo approach to account for statistical dependency of input parameters, again regarding soil N2O emissions. This is in contrast to the results of other countries, which focus less on statistical dependency when performing Monte Carlo analysis. In addition, the error propagation results depend on treatment of skewed probability distributions, which need to be translated into normal distributions. The result indicates that more attention needs to be given to identifying statistically dependent input data in uncertainty assessment.

Increases in the concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) due to human activities are associated with global climate change. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has increased by 33% (to 380 ppm) since 1750 ad, whilst CH4 concentration has increased by 75% (to 1,750 ppb), and as the global warming potential (GWP) of CH4 is 25 fold greater than CO2 it represents about 20% of the global warming effect. The purpose of this review is to: (a) address recent findings regarding biophysical factors governing production and consumption of CH4, (b) identify the current level of knowledge regarding the main sources and sinks of CH4 in Australia, and (c) identify CH4 mitigation options and their potential application in Australian ecosystems. Almost one-third of CH4 emissions are from natural sources such as wetlands and lake sediments, which is poorly documented in Australia. For Australia, the major anthropogenic sources of CH4 emissions include energy production from fossil fuels (~24%), enteric fermentation in the guts of ruminant animals (~59%), landfills, animal wastes and domestic sewage (~15%), and biomass burning (~5%), with minor contributions from manure management (1.7%), land use, land-use change and forestry (1.6%), and rice cultivation (0.2%). A significant sink exists for CH4 (~6%) in aerobic soils, including agricultural and forestry soils, and potentially large areas of arid soils, however, due to limited information available in Australia, it is not accounted for in the Australian National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. CH4 emission rates from submerged soils vary greatly, but mean values ≤10 mg m−2 h−1 are common. Landfill sites may emit CH4 at one to three orders of magnitude greater than submerged soils. CH4 consumption rates in non-flooded, aerobic agricultural, pastoral and forest soils also vary greatly, but mean values are restricted to ≤100 μg m−2 h−1, and generally greatest in forest soils and least in agricultural soils, and decrease from temperate to tropical regions. Mitigation options for soil CH4 production primarily relate to enhancing soil oxygen diffusion through water management, land use change, minimised compaction and soil fertility management. Improved management of animal manure could include biogas capture for energy production or arable composting as opposed to open stockpiling or pond storage. Balanced fertiliser use may increase soil CH4 uptake, reduce soil N2O emissions whilst improving nutrient and water use efficiency, with a positive net greenhouse gas (CO2-e) effect. Similarly, the conversion of agricultural land to pasture, and pastoral land to forestry should increase soil CH4 sink. Conservation of native forests and afforestation of degraded agricultural land would effectively mitigate CH4 emissions by maintaining and enhancing CH4 consumption in these soils, but also by reducing N2O emissions and increasing C sequestration. The overall impact of climate change on methanogenesis and methanotrophy is poorly understood in Australia, with a lack of data highlighting the need for long-term research and process understanding in this area. For policy addressing land-based greenhouse gas mitigation, all three major greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4 and N2O) should be monitored simultaneously, combined with improved understanding at process-level.

According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol under it, industrial countries have to estimate their greenhouse gas emissions annually, and assess the uncertainties in these estimates. In Finland, agricultural methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions represent 7% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, and globally the share is much higher. Agriculture is one of the most uncertain emission categories (representing over 20% of greenhouse gas inventory uncertainty in Finland), due to both high natural variability of the emission sources and poor knowledge of the emission-generating processes. In this paper, we present an uncertainty estimate of agricultural CH4 and N2O emissions from Finland in 2002. Uncertainties were estimated based on measurement data, literature and expert judgement, and total uncertainty in agriculture was calculated using Monte Carlo simulation. According to the calculations, agricultural CH4 and N2O emissions from Finland were 3.7 to 7.8 Tg carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalents, 5.4 Tg being the mean value.Estimates of CH4 emissions are more reliable than those of N2O. N2O from agricultural soils was the most uncertain emission category, and the uncertainty was not reduced by using available national measurement data of N2O fluxes. Sensitivity study revealed that the uncertainty in total agricultural inventory could be 7% points lower, if more accurate emission estimation methods were used, including 1) improved data collection in area estimates of organic soils, 2) climate-specific methods for N2O from agricultural soils as already presented in literature, and 3) more detailed CH4 estimation methods for enteric fermentation which can be achieved by investigating national circumstances and digestible systems of animals in more detail.

Forest biomass and its change over time have been measured at both local and large scales, an example for the latter being forest greenhouse gas inventories. Currently used methodologies to obtain stock change estimates for large forest areas are mostly based on forest inventory information as well as various factors, referred to as biomass factors, or biomass equations, which transform diameter, height or volume data into biomass estimates. However, while forest inventories usually apply statistically sound sampling and can provide representative estimates for large forest areas, the biomass factors or equations used are, in most cases, not representative, because they are based on local studies. Moreover, their application is controversial due to the inconsistent or inappropriate use of definitions involved. There is no standardized terminology of the various factors, and the use of terms and definitions is often confusing. The present contribution aims at systematically summarizing the main types of biomass factors (BF) and biomass equations (BE) and providing guidance on how to proceed when selecting, developing and applying proper factors or equations to be used in forest biomass estimation. The contribution builds on the guidance given by the IPCC (Good practice guidance for land use, land-use change and forestry, 2003) and suggests that proper application and reporting of biomass factors and equations and transparent and consistent reporting of forest carbon inventories are needed in both scientific literature and the greenhouse gas inventory reports of countries.

The aim of this case study is to answer the question whether in the next decade and longer term the Czech Republic can participate in greenhouse gas emission trading. We analysed the position of the Czech Republic, especially with respect to one of the most discussed international agreements in this field, the Kyoto Protocol. Carbon, which is considered here primarily as the main source of energy so that it can be discussed later as the main component of greenhouse gases, is the main "binding material" of all the parts of the presented paper. The study starts with the current economic and environmental situation in the Czech Republic in its first chapter. The second part focuses on the energy sector – the main source of greenhouse gas emissions – from the point of view of fossil energy sources as well as renewable energy sources. The third chapter offers a comprehensive national greenhouse gas inventory which allows us in the following chapter to make some predictions about the Czech Republic's potential for intangible carbon flows – emission permits trading. This chapter contains projections not only for the Kyoto Protocol term (2008–2012) but also for medium (2020) and longer terms (2030). Besides the emission projections the description of possible future developments in government strategy, with respect to emission trading, has been outlined in this section. Through such a procedure the main research question, whether the Czech Republic can participate in greenhouse gas emission trading in the next decade, is answered in the affirmative for the period 2008–2012 and the potential for joint implementation and emission trading is quantified. At the end of this study we also raised some broader research questions about problems connected with the future development of an emission trading system after 2012.

Considering their contribution to global warming, the sources and sinks of methane (CH4) should be accounted when undertaking a greenhouse gas inventory for grazed rangeland ecosystems. The aim of this study was to evaluate the mitigation potential of current ecological management programs implemented in the main rangeland regions of China. The influences of rangeland improvement, utilization and livestock production on CH4 flux/emission were assessed to estimate CH4 reduction potential. Results indicate that the grazed rangeland ecosystem is currently a net source of atmospheric CH4. However, there is potential to convert the ecosystem to a net sink by improving management practices. Previous assessments of capacity for CH4 uptake in grazed rangeland ecosystems have not considered improved livestock management practices and thus underestimated potential for CH4 uptake. Optimal fertilization, rest and light grazing, and intensification of livestock management contribute mitigation potential significantly.

Using the 1997 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Methodology, and statistical data from the China Agricultural Yearbook, we estimated that the direct N2O emission from agricultural fields in China in 1990 was 0.282 Tg N. Based on micro-meteorological field measurement of NH3 volatilization from agricultural fields in different regions and under different cropping systems, the total NH3 volatilization from agricultural fields in China in 1990 was calculated to be 1.80 Tg N, which accounted for 11% of the applied synthetic fertilizer N. Ammonia volatilization from agricultural soil was related to the cropping system and the form of N fertilizer. Ammonia volatilization from paddy fields was higher than that from uplands, and NH4HCO3 had a higher potential of NH3 volatilization than urea. N loss through leaching from uplands in north China accounted for 0.5–4.2% of the applied synthetic fertilizer N. In south China, the leaching of applied N and soil N from paddy fields ranged from 6.75 to 27.0 kg N ha-1 yr-1, while N runoff was between 2.45 and 19.0 kg N ha-1 yr-1.

Dendrochronological studies and forest inventory surveys have reported increased growth and biospheric carbon (C) sequestration for European forests in the recent past. The potential of concomitant changes in forest soil C stocks are not accounted for in the IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. We developed a model-based approach to address this problem and assess the role of soils in forest C balance in the European Alps. The decomposition model FORCLIM-D was driven by long-term (that is, 1900–1985 AD) litter input scenarios constructed from forest inventory data, region-specific dendrochronological basal area indices, and time series of anthropogenic litter removal. The effect of spatial climate variability on organic matter decomposition across the case study region (Switzerland) was explicitly accounted for by constant long-term annual means of actual evapotranspiration and temperature. Uncertainties in forest development, litter removal, fine root litter input, and dynamics of forest soil C were studied by an explorative factorial sensitivity analysis. We found that forest soils contribute substantially to the biospheric C sequestration for Switzerland: Our “best estimate” yielded an increase of 0.35 Mt C/y or 0.33 t C/(ha y) in forest soils for 1985, that is, 27% of the C sequestered by forest trees (BUWAL 1994). Uncertainties regarding C accumulation in forest soils were substantial (0.11–0.58 Mt C/y) but could be reduced by estimating forest soil C stocks in the future. Whereas soils can be important for the C balance in naturally regrowing forests, their C sequestration is negligible (less than 5%) relative to anthropogenic CO2 emissions in Western Europe at present.

Guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) were used to assess a greenhouse gas inventory for land use change and forestry in Finland. In 1952, managed forests represented a carbon (C) sink of 2.3 Tg yr-1 (Tg=teragram=1012g) in terms of total biomass growth and drain, converted into respective biomass. In 1960, forests were a carbon source of 0.1 Tg C yr-1, but since 1970 the size of the forest C sink has increased from 0.5 Tg yr-1 to 8.3 Tg yr-1 in 1990. If the future use of the forest resources remains at the level of late 1980s, the size of forest C sink could increase to 14.2 Tg yr-1 by 2010 and to 24.9 Tg yr-1 by 2030. The maximum use of the forest resources could result in a 2.2 Tg yr-1 C source by 2010, and in a 0.8 Tg yr-1 source by 2030. The average annual C balance for the period 1991–2030 could amount to −0.5−17.6 Tg yr-1, depending on the use of forest resources. Carbon emissions related to forest drainage and soil preparation seem to be extremely uncertain, although they seem to have a potential to decrease the sinks substantially. On the other hand, taking roundwood import, and wood products more precisely, into consideration would increase the C sink. Changing climate may increase carbon accumulation in forests and affect the sink.

Background Standing dead trees are one component of forest ecosystem dead wood carbon (C) pools, whose national stock is estimated by the U.S. as required by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Historically, standing dead tree C has been estimated as a function of live tree growing stock volume in the U.S.'s National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. Initiated in 1998, the USDA Forest Service's Forest Inventory and Analysis program (responsible for compiling the Nation's forest C estimates) began consistent nationwide sampling of standing dead trees, which may now supplant previous purely model-based approaches to standing dead biomass and C stock estimation. A substantial hurdle to estimating standing dead tree biomass and C attributes is that traditional estimation procedures are based on merchantability paradigms that may not reflect density reductions or structural loss due to decomposition common in standing dead trees. The goal of this study was to incorporate standing dead tree adjustments into the current estimation procedures and assess how biomass and C stocks change at multiple spatial scales. Results Accounting for decay and structural loss in standing dead trees significantly decreased tree- and plot-level C stock estimates (and subsequent C stocks) by decay class and tree component. At a regional scale, incorporating adjustment factors decreased standing dead quaking aspen biomass estimates by almost 50 percent in the Lake States and Douglas-fir estimates by more than 36 percent in the Pacific Northwest. Conclusions Substantial overestimates of standing dead tree biomass and C stocks occur when one does not account for density reductions or structural loss. Forest inventory estimation procedures that are descended from merchantability standards may need to be revised toward a more holistic approach to determining standing dead tree biomass and C attributes (i.e., attributes of tree biomass outside of sawlog portions). Incorporating density reductions and structural loss adjustments reduces uncertainty associated with standing dead tree biomass and C while improving consistency with field methods and documentation.

The aim of this paper is to propose a research framework, based on the joint use of three widely used methods: EMergy Evaluation (EME), Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA) and Greenhouse Gas Inventory (GHGI), that are applied to assess the environmental sustainability of a region. The results of application of these methods to several Italian Provinces enabled us to compare their sustainability, and to test the methods with respect to sustainability requirements at local and global level. The outcomes suggest that the proposed framework provides an organic evaluation of regional systems based on key aspects, such as resources depletion, consumption patterns, waste production and absorption.