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The aim of the study was to assess the metal pollution in the vicinity of the Bukowno smelter near Olkusz in southern Poland. Birch and oak leaves, pine needles and a lichen Hypogymnia physodes, overgrowing pine bark were collected at stands at different distances from the smelter and analysed for cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) content. Concentrations of metals in the lichen were usually higher than in the tree leaves/needles and decreased with distance from the smelter, apart from the Cu content. The strongest correlation was noticed between Cd and Pb concentrations, which indicates a common pollution source (the smelter). Our results show that birch leaves can be potentially useful as a bioindicator of Zn air pollution since this species was shown to accumulate high amounts of zinc, related to environmental pollution with that metal, in their leaves.

The gross and average contents of 18 metals (Al, As, Cd, Ge, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Ti, V, Zn) were determined by ICP-AES analysis in samples of Hypogymnia physodes collected from regional nature reserves (NR) in the cities of Tver and Konakovo. The average contents of six metals (Zn, Mo, Cr, Ti, Al, Fe) and the gross contents of eight metals (Zn, Mo, Co, Cu, Cr, Ti, Al, Fe) in these cities were higher than the background levels for Tver Region. The contents of other metals did not exceed background levels. The concentrations of most metals were higher in samples from Tver than in those from Konakovo due to the specifics of their economic infrastructures. The Bobachevskaya Grove NR (Tver) had the most pronounced technological metal pollution. Areas with significant fragments of forest communities were less polluted.

The gross and average contents of 15 metals (Al, As, Cd, Co, Cu, Ge, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, Ti, V, and Zn) in samples of Hypogymnia physodes collected from a reserve area in Tver Region were determined using inductively-coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Apparently, most of these elements appeared as a result of transboundary transfer. Their concentration in lichens depended on the atmospheric humidity. An excess of moisture in ecotopes located near rivers and swamps increased the gross concentration of separate elements in the lichens. The average contents of most elements in the specimens were within permissible limits, which allowed possible baseline element concentration ranges for this region to be established.

Two large-scale national monitoring cam- paigns investigating changes in spruce bark extract acidity and long-term monitoring of bark acidity along elevation transects have been carried out in the Czech Republic. The investigations have revealed significant average changes in the pH values of bark extracts (4 g: 16 ml) from 2.35 to 2.60 between 1989 and 1995, and from 2.60 to 3.25 between 1995 and 2005. In comparison with 1990, the H + concentrations in bark extracts had decreased by 10-15% in 1995 and by 70% in 2005. National emissions of acidic com- pounds were reduced by about 58% (1995) and 62% (2005), and the mean annual H + deposition was reduced by about 60% (1995) and by about 80% (2005). However, neither inventoried current absolute amounts nor specific regional amounts of emitted acidic pollutants correlated significantly with bark acidity in 1995 and 2005. Bark acidity was not significantly affected by the elevation of the sampling plots or by the average tree defoliation. Along the altitudinal transects, considerably defoliated trees near the top of mountain ridgesshowedpermanentlylowerbarkaciditythantrees lower downthe mountainslopes. Significantdifferences in average bark acidity were found between defined mountain, highland and lowland elevation zones. In 2005, the epiphytic lichen Hypogymnia physodes was found at almost all sampling plots, with the exception of the most industrialised areas of two coal basins. The abundance of the lichen correlated significantly and negatively with spruce bark acidity and with total nitrogen and copper concentrations in moss growing at the bark sampling plots in 2005.

We have studied the level of atmospheric pollution in different urban recreational areas using analysis of the chemical composition of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes by Fourier transform IR (FTIR) spectroscopy. We have developed a procedure for determining the dominant pollutant, its concentration, and the degree of its impact on the structure of the lichen.

During the years 2007 and 2010, the activity concentration of (137)Cs accumulated in soil, mosses Pleurozium schreberi and lichens Hypogymnia physodes was measured. The studies covered the areas of the so-called Opole Anomaly. In consequence of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant breakdown in 1986, relatively large amounts of this radionuclide were deposited in this area. In some areas of the Anomaly, over 100 times higher surface activity of (137)Cs was detected, compared to the lowest values registered in Poland. Currently, (137)Cs is still present in woodlands and wastelands. As at 2 April 2013, the surface activity concentration of (137)Cs in soil on the tested area was from 0.34 to 67.5 kBq m(-2). In comparison, the surface activity concentration of (137)Cs as at 1 June 1986, soon after deposition, was from 2.08 to over 125 kBq m(-2). The maximum specific activity concentrations of (137)Cs in mosses and lichens sampled for testing in 2010 were respectively 1234 and 959 Bq kg(-1). It was also proven that the changes in activity concentration of (137)Cs in the area of the Anomaly are mainly the consequence of the radioactive decay of this radionuclide.

Emissions of mercury from a chlor-alkali plant in central Wisconsin have raised concern about possible effects on biota in the area. Samples of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes, which no longer grows in the area, were transplanted from a site in northeastern Wisconsin and positioned on plastic stands at varying distances up to 1250 m from the plant and sampled for Hg quarterly for one year to test the hypothesis that Hg would be taken up by the lichens and would decline with distance. Average tissue concentrations were elevated when first sampled at three months and continued to increase at the nearest sites until the study ended after one year. Average concentrations after a year of exposure ranged from 4418 ppb at 250 m from the plant to 403 ppb at 1250 m from the plant. The decrease over distance followed a negative exponential pattern. Background concentrations at a control site in northern Wisconsin averaged 155 ppb.

Hypogymnia physodes was sampled from 179 sites of Scots pine forests regularly distributed throughout Norway. The purpose was to map the nitrogen and sulphur contents of lichen thalli on a large-scale geographical basis, and to relate these values to differences in atmospheric deposition and climate.The lichen nitrogen and sulphur concentrations showed large differences; the highest concentration values being 4-5 times greater than the lowest. The highest nitrogen and sulphur values occurred along the coast of southern Norway and on some sites in the inland of southern Norway. There was a close correlation between the two elements. The lichen N/S ratio decreased with increasing latitude.The nitrogen and sulphur contents ofHypogymnia physodes were both significantly correlated to estimated atmospheric deposition of these two elements in Norway. The degree of explanation improved when climatic variables such as temperature sum, altitude, annual precipitation and temperature were included. Factors promoting growth, such as high bark pH, mild winters, hot summers, high precipitation, high ammonium deposition and high evapotranspiration, were all associated with lower lichen nitrogen and/or sulphur concentrations. Unfavourable growth conditions, such as at high altitude, was related to higher concentrations than expected from deposition models. This indicates that differences in element concentration between nearby localities might be related to local differences in climate and lichen growth conditions. This should be taken into consideration whenever using lichens for biomonitoring.

Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. andDicranoweisia cirrata (Hedw.) Lindb. were transplanted to 12 stations in the vicinity of the steelworks in Frederiksvaerk, Denmark. The transplants were exposed for 7 mo, and samples were taken after 31, 64, 104, 154, 184, and 214 days. Bulk precipitation was collected simultaneously. The concentrations of the metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Ph, V, and Zn were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry in both transplants and bulk precipitation. The amounts of accumulated metals in the transplants were linearly correlated with fallout from the atmosphere, the bryophytes accumulating the metals slightly faster than the lichens. The metal concentrations in the transplants, as well as the bulk precipitation, followed a decreasing power curve when the distance to the steelworks was increased. It was concluded that transplanted lichens and bryophytes can be applied as monitor organisms of heavy metal pollution from the air.

The lichenized ascomyceteHypogymnia physodes was collected every second month during a one year period at the same site in a wood near the city of Zurich and investigated with light and electron microscopy techniques. Temperature and relative humidity were measured at the collecting site. Seasonal variations in the germination rate of soredia, in photobiont cell size and cell number, in type and amounts of storage products, and in the density of intramembranous particles of the plasma membrane of theTrebouxia photobiont were observed. Highest germination rates and intense aplanospore formation were observed in January, highest particle densities in both external and internal fracture faces of the plasma membrane in March. Lipids and starch were most abundant in spring to early summer. In summer and autumn numerous photobiont cells died off.

A survey of heavy metal deposition was carried out in the vicinity of a Danish steel plant. Bulk precipitation and transplanted lichen (Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl.) were sampled at 12 stations in the environment before and after the production had been converted from open-hearth furnaces to electric-arc furnaces. The samples were analyzed for Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn.

In order to determine the influence of the hydrogen-ion concentration on the damage exerted to lichens by sulfur dioxide gas, thalli of the species Hypogymnia physodes and Xanthoria parietina were submerged in buffer solutions of pH 2 to pH 8 and subsequently exposed to SO2 gas. Net photosynthesis was employed as a criterion of vitality.

The sulphur dioxide in the air can be estimated qualitatively by studying the lichens growing on trees. A ten-point scale has been constructed and used in pilot surveys in England and Wales, south-east England and the city of Leicester.