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In some Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) applications, the geocast routing protocol is used for data transmission from a source vehicle to a group of vehicles located in a common region. Efficient data transmission to the destination region is one of the critical challenges of geocast routing protocols. In this research, the geocast routings are considered that exploit rateless coding to improve the reliability, and so packet delivery ratio. Some of these geocast routing methods use flooding schemes to deliver the messages to the destination region. However, in order to cut high overheads caused by flooding schemes, the routing protocols that use unicast routes for data delivery have been taken into account. In this way, recent geocast routing protocols exploit on-demand unicast routing methods such as Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) to deliver the packets to the destination region and then broadcast them in that area. However, the packet delivery ratio and the delay of those methods are respectively lower and higher than flooding-based methods. This paper proposes to exploit the table-driven Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol to deliver the messages to the destination region. To customize the OLSR protocol for geocasting, we propose a number of modifications to message flows and data exchanges. Compared to on-demand geocast protocols, OLSR imposes lower message delay and delivers more messages to the destination region at a higher overhead expense. To overcome this overhead, we also propose algorithms to adjust the control message intervals of the OLSR protocol in each node. Simulation results show that our OLSR-based protocol demonstrates better performance in terms of delay and packet delivery ratio than those of the traditional AODV-based method and CALAR-DD protocol regarding various vehicles' densities, vehicles' velocities, message sizes, and destination region sizes. Compared to the traditional OLSR, using the tuned OLSR-based method has also significantly reduced the signaling overhead costs.

Vehicular adhoc networks are slowly gaining importance as the demand for faster communication increases. The vehicular nodes need to communicate securely via an established and effective route. Control and protocol information between the vehicles is transmitted using the technique of broadcasting. The nodes are never stagnant and even though their energy rarely dissipates, the high mobility of the nodes poses quite a problem. Lack of an established infrastructure is a major issue and needs to be addressed in order to achieve maximum performance. We have designed a novel waterfall model focusing on a robust broadcasting method. The OLSR protocol is enhanced using a robust MPR technique, which helps in mitigating the circulation of duplicate packets within the network. The RMPR subset of the OLSR protocol is capable of handling transmission errors and the hidden and exposed terminal problems prevalent in the VANET environment. The inclusion of a waterfall model enables the proposed technique to maximize throughput and minimize the delay in the network. The waterfall model works in two major phases. The first phase incorporates the Cognitive radio scheme for effective channel allocation and utilization.The RMPR technique is implemented in the second phase which focuses on utilizing the neighbor nodes to transmit the packets successfully towards the destination. The RMPR scheme aims to categorize the neighboring nodes as either one hop or 2-hop neighboring nodes. Additionally, the uncategorized nodes are further probed to find a second subset of 2-hop nodes which would speed up the transmission. The implementation of these two important phases into the classic waterfall model helps to streamline the activities and helps in streamlining the network activities.The proposed waterfall model RMPR technique is analyzed with protocols like MMPR–OLSR and the OLSR protocols to determine the effectiveness of the proposed protocol. The performance analysis is carried out using the NS2 simulator. The techniques that are compared are evaluated using major network parameters like throughput, delay, PDR and channel utilization. It is evident that the proposed protocol is able to maximize the PDR than the existing techniques.

FANET (flying ad-hoc network) has provided broad area for research and deployment due to efficient use of the capabilities of drones and UAVs (unmanned ariel vehicles) in several military and rescue applications. Drones have high mobility in 3D (3 dimensional) environment and low battery power, which produce various problems such as small journey time and infertile routing. The optimal routing for communication will assist to resolve these problems and provide the energy efficient and secure data transmission over FANET. Hence, in this paper, we proposed a whale optimization algorithm based optimized link state routing (WOA-OLSR) over FANET to provide optimal routing for energy efficient and secure FANET. The efficiency of OLSR is enhanced by using WOA and evaluated performance shows the better efficiency of WOA-OLSR in terms of some parameters such as a packet delivery ratio, end to end delay, energy utilization, throughput, and time complexity against the previous approaches OLSR, MP-OLSR, P-OLSR, ML-OLSR-FIFO and ML-OLSR-PMS.

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a self-organized network, contains sensor nodes deployed in particular regions to gather the environmental parameters and communicate the information to the base station directly through intermediate nodes. In recent times, WSN has gained attention from wireless device manufacturers, researchers, and users for remotely accessing and monitoring the information in diverse environments. The scalability and routing are the major concerns of the network. Apart from that, the performance of WSN depends on network simulation parameters such as delay, throughput, packet delivery ratio (PDR), and control overhead. The research paper focused on the DSDV and OLSR routing protocol realization on the new hardware platform. The hardware chip of these protocols is designed in Xilinx ISE 14.7 software using VHDL, targeted on Virtex-5 FPGA. The node communication is verified on Modelsim 10.0 simulation software. The FPGA hardware and timing parameters are analyzed for different node clusters (N = 10, 20 …150) configuration. The OLSR routing protocol network performance parameters are used to build the machine learning prediction model using cluster tree regression, random forest regression, multiple regression, and K-means clustering. The K-means clustering predicted 99.12% and 98.50% accuracy in terms of the packet delivery ratio and throughput respectively.

Various sensor nodes are interconnected with each other in wireless sensor network (WSN). WSN communicates to every node within the network wirelessly to collect data regarding the surrounding environment and send the particular data to the destination/centralised location. The sensor nodes transmit the data and the source sensor node transmits data to destination sensor nodes through various intermediary sensor nodes. Thus, secure transmission is required in which WSN must be free from malicious nodes to achieve safe transfer. In this paper, our objective is to provide secure data transmission in an efficient manner from source to destination through a trust based path namely novel fuzzy based crow search optimization algorithm (F-CSO) and optimised link state routing protocol (OLSR) protocol. Through NS3 tool, nodes are deployed in the network area and novel F-CSO is performed with respect to three parameters such as distance, degree and transmission energy. The best nodes are considered for optimization process and it must satisfy the three conditions such as lower distance between each node for transmitting the data, higher degree and higher energy for transmission. A set of nodes that satisfies this condition are gathered by the fuzzy rule technique and then further optimised by crow search optimization technique leading to exact nodes through which trust based transmissions are performed. Further, routing can be achieved by the OLSR protocol. The performance of the proposed system is compared with existing studies with respect to the system for detecting the malicious nodes with and without utilizing proposed F-CSO in terms of execution time, throughput, and packet delivery ratio. The evaluation result has shown that malicious nodes is detected in an efficient manner through the use of F-CSO, showing better results with various parameters.

Recently Mobile adhoc networks (MANETs) have received the great attention of researchers as these models provide a wide range of applications. But MANET nodes are prone to various security threats. To overcome this issue, many trust management frameworks have been implemented in the literature. It has been found that the use of machine learning can predict trust values more efficiently. However, machine learning performance suffers from the hyper-parameters tuning and over-fitting issues. Therefore, in this paper, novel trust management is proposed. initially, the Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) is used to train the trust prediction model. Thereafter, a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-III (NSGA-III) is used to tune the hyper-parameters of the ANFIS model. Precision, recall, and root mean squared error metrics are used to design a multi-objective fitness function. Optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol is used for comparative analyses purpose. Three different attacks are applied on the designed network i.e., link spoofing, jellyfish, and gray hole attacks to obtain the dataset. Comparative analysis reveals that the proposed trust evaluation model outperforms the competitive trust evaluation models in terms of various performance metrics such as routing overheads, average end to end latency, packet delivery ratio, and throughput. Thus, the proposed protocol is more secure against various security threats.

The Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR) operates as proactive routing protocol destined for Mobile Ad hoc Network, OLSR is considering as one of the four important routing protocols identified by the Internet Engineering Task Force. The core of performance in OLSR routing protocol is the Multipoint Relays (MPRs) which are selected nodes responsible to forward broadcast messages during the flooding process in order to optimize the message overhead across the network. However, OLSR can be affected by the single Black hole attack that presents an active routing attack disturbs the network by dropping the forwarding packets. In this paper, we propose a new algorithm of selection for the MPR set in order to avoid malicious neighbors and select the thrust one by add a new criterion named as degree of forwarding. Our approach is based on exchanging acknowledgment Hello message between 2-hop neighbors when message HELLO is forwarded successfully between them, some modifications in MPR selection process are also made to select the most secure MPR nodes. The simulation of our proposed solution gives highly motivated results compared to the standard version of OLSR routing protocol under the Black hole attack in different network metrics as the throughput, packet delivery ratio, End-to-End delay, jitter delay and packet lost.

Mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) are with no framework and comprises just of equivalent companions. This paper shows exact tests for MANET routing the protocols. The testbed dependent on Linux stage introduced in mobile computers. A few parameters are investigated, for example, development speed and the quantity of jumps which sway on routing execution. The testbed comprises of a few Raspberry Pis (RPis) without the requirement for any central master devices. For making the RPis portable and autonomous of any fixed power attachments, every one of them is controlled by a battery. Then again, for the assessment of the testbed, two directing conventions are picked. The main convention is called BABEL, which considered as a separation vector directing calculation. The other one, the optimized link state routing protocol (OLSR) which considered as proactive steering convention. The utilization case was a multi-jump download of documents with various sizes. The point is to assess how different bounces impact the transfer speed and postponement. The outcomes demonstrate that OLSR performs better with respect to the throughput. However, Babel has less deferral and quicker with respect to convergence.

Medical Body Area Networks or MBANs are gaining popularity in healthcare circles because of the convenience they provide to patients and caregivers and assist in chronic disease management. In order to provide prompt and efficient care to the patient, MBANs need to be designed in a way so that stringent QoS requirements are fulfilled. This is essential as MBANs carry vital sign data and any loss or delay in transmission can be fatal and life-threatening. Current research focus is to develop mechanisms and protocols that are focused to reduce delays, conserve energy and improve QoS parameters such as Reliability. An important aspect of MBANs is to give special attention to emergency traffic which is carried when a serious event is triggered such as heartbeat going above threshold or ECG status showing cardiac issues. Thus, the provision of QoS is a challenging task and must be addressed at various layers of the network. There are various techniques to cater to QoS requirements and one way of improving QoS is to reduce the packet loss so that transmission is reliable which is necessary for life-saving data. Research contributions have addressed this mostly at the MAC layer/network layer and through queuing techniques. However, none of these mechanisms do not consider the wireless channel dynamics and the impact of MAC layer and physical layer parameters together while focusing on Emergency data handling within an Intra-WBAN. In this paper, we have proposed a QoS aware Cross layered solution based on IEEE 802.15.6 that is adaptive, Relay based, multi metric and changes the routing scheme based on traffic type. We have selected AODV protocol over OLSR, DSR and other protocols because of its design simplicity. In this paper, we have reviewed the existing literature on WBAN Reliability enhancements’ techniques followed by a review of QoS aware enhancements for AODV. Our proposed protocol is designed and simulated for Intra-WBAN communication and is efficient in terms of end-to-end reliability.

Recent research in communication moves towards cyber space with modern applications such as multimedia surveillance, smart autonomous traffic control, advanced health care monitoring, industrial automation, and continuous remote environmental and structural monitoring. Such applications are extensively generates multimedia information and converse through Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs). Path selection plays vital role in transmitting the multimedia data over wireless networks. Single path selection incurs routing failure due to the energy hole because of power shortage and traffic congestion. Due to energy hole in any particular node the packet gets dropped in the route from source to destination. The multipath routing algorithm selects more than one path to increase the rate of the packet delivery than the single path routing. The prediction of energy deficiency in sensor nodes is becoming over head in WSMNs. In order to improve the packet delivery and performance of the network, in this paper a Priority Based Multipath Routing Algorithm (PBMRA) is proposed. It consists of three modules: The Neighbourhood Selection identifies the neighbours; Multipath Construction constructs multiple paths from the indentified neighbours; and Priority Selection selects the high energized routes based on the priority of node attributes such as liveliness, path delay and hop count. The proposed algorithm is experimentally compared with other existing algorithms such as AODV, DSR, DSDV and OLSR. The experimental results show that the PBMRA algorithm increases the overall throughput, packet received rate and provides the reliable route than existing algorithms.

In our proposed system, the vehicular sensor network is formulated based on the cognitive radio with the aid of optimal tree routing protocol. Tree routing protocol for cognitive radio network effectively coordinates between tree routing module and channel assignment module. Here the traditional routing protocol is modified by means of optimization technique. In our proposed method the root channel is optimally selected using artificial fish swarm algorithm. Based on that effective root channel is selected for transmission and the other channels are switched to disabled state. So that MCTRP routing protocol to efficiently manage spectrum allocation that helps reduce the routing delay and rank the channels available from end to end. And also our proposed routing protocol is efficiently deal with frequent link failure. The performance of the proposed technique is evaluated by packet delivery ratio, throughput, overhead, delay, drop, and channel utilization. The proposed technique is implemented in the working platform of NS2. Our proposed method has better channel utilization capacity of 86.6% then the existing CTRP and OLSR method. From the experimental result, it is clear that our proposed method has low delay, high delivery ratio, low packet drop and maximum throughput, minimum overhead and maximum channel utilization value when compared to the existing CTRP and OLSR method.

A major issue in VANETs is the high mobility of the nodes. Broadcasting helps in improving the performance of the VANETs in terms of secure routing. However, broadcasting is a major overhead in VANETs. Broadcasting is still a widely used technique in wireless ad hoc networks and is mainly used to transmit network control information and application oriented data. The Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR) uses a multipoint relay scheme (MPR) to flood the network with control messages involving topology and other technical data. The method generally adopted is flooding which sometimes may lead to congestion in the network. The OLSR technique also has the capability of reducing retransmissions that are redundant and obsolete. We have proposed a MPR selection technique for a robust broadcast in VANETs. Our proposed method tries to cover all the 2-hop MPR nodes ‘m’ times. It also considers the weaker 2-hop MPR nodes set and compensates by providing an alternate solution to counteract the same. In fact, the proposed method determines the strength of the 2-hop MPR set before the start of the transmission and also tries to control the flooding of the transmission control messages. The proposed method is capable of recovering faster when there are broken communication links using the concept of friend MPR nodes. This is made possible with the help of the control packets which carry information regarding the RMPR and the Friend MPR nodes. The RMPR nodes are analyzed using a network simulator (NS2) and mathematical modeling. The values were obtained from the graph readings that were supplied to the simulator. The performance analysis has been tabulated in the results and discussion section. We have studied the performance of the proposed RMPR–OLSR protocol with the existing MMPR–OLSR and the OLSR protocols. The protocols were assessed by studying the network performance when the number of nodes was increased. It was assessed based on the nature of the traffic within the network. The delay for the proposed RMPR–OSLR was lesser than the other two methods (even with an increase in the number of nodes). Similarly, the packet drop for RMPR–OLSR was lesser than MMPR–OLSR and OLSR. The throughput of the RMPR–OLSR was found to increase by than the other existing protocols. The channel utilization was found to be more improved than the other protocols. In fact, the packet delivery ratio (PDR) of the proposed protocol was more than the other two protocols. Thus, the proposed protocol is capable of improving the overall throughput of the network and also helps in maximizing the PDR with respect to the MPR selection technique employed by OLSR.

Recently, multi-metric routing protocols have been proposed to enhance the performance of the typical single metric routing protocols in mobile ad-hoc networks. Generally, most of them employ simple value computation to derive a cost value as a way by combining multiple metrics. However, this simple approach fails to define the relationship or priorities between multiple metrics. To overcome this limitation, in this study, we apply the multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) method to determine the weight factors between the metrics. We define criteria to accommodate multiple metric in logical way and decide a better path. For the case studies, we extend the existing proactive and reactive routing protocols, that is, ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) and optimized link state routing protocol (OLSR). In AODV, we present a strategy for modifying the route request and route reply mechanism to generate a stable path using the MCDM. On the other hand, in OLSR, we propose a modification strategy of MPR selection algorithm to maintain a stable topology using the MCDM. The simulation results show that proposed routing scheme reduces the routing overhead by 15% and 13%, packet loss rate by 12% and 14%, and end-to-end delay by 21% and 19% approximately, compared with other routing schemes such as fixed weighted AODV, OLSR and MCDM based geographical routing protocol.

VANETs are wireless sensor networks that suffer from the drawback of highly mobile nodes. The main objective of any type of network is to achieve efficient transmission goals. The vehicles act as the transmitting nodes. Cognitive radio technology helps in sensing the spectrum in order to ensure the efficient usage of the reserved channels by all the nodes. Our proposed system incorporates a routing protocol with the cognitive radio technology for efficient channel assignment. The routing protocol applies a tree based structure for efficient routing within and between networks. The tree routing protocol is further altered by the inclusion of an efficient optimized scheme. The proposed technique involves a Genetic Whale Optimization Algorithm which helps in choosing a root channel for transmission. When the selected root channel becomes active, the other channels are disabled. The proposed tree routing protocol is called the modified cognitive tree routing protocol (MCTRP).Apart from routing this protocol also caters to the need of effective channel utilization by allocating the spectrum fairly. This scheme results in ranking the channels based on their transmission efficiency and also aims to reduce the inherent delay usually associated with VANETs. The protocol also handles link breakages efficiently. The proposed scenario is simulated in NS2 and is evaluated based on the major network metrics. Our protocol shows a sharp decline in the associated delay and guarantees effective channel utilization. The proposed MCTRP method is effective over other protocols, such as, CTRP and OLSR. The analytical results show that MCTRP promises minimum overheads with effective channel utilization than the existing protocols.

The constantly changing network topology in a VANET is dependent on efficient routing techniques. The position of the nodes gets updated by transmitting the Hello packets which contain vital control information about the network topology. The Hello packets are usually transmitted by a flooding technique. Flooding may prove disastrous when there is a heavy load on the network. It also results in allowing an unwanted number of redundant messages to be circulated, which in turn increases the transmission overhead. Our proposed work uses the optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol with minimum multipoint relays (MMPR) to minimize the effects of flooding and maximize the channel utilization. The proposed protocol focuses on enhancing the security of the transmission by ensuring that only a selected set of nodes participate in forwarding the Hello packets emanating from the source. Our proposed technique makes sure that only a minimal set of nodes are always responsible for transmission. This helps in authenticating the nodes responsible for transmission. Additionally, this also ensures that flooding and transmission are more controlled than a normal mobile network. The proposed technique focuses on the efficient usage of bandwidth by minimizing the hop count of the transmission. Controlled and effective transmission with effective channel utilization is the main objective of our proposed protocol. The results are simulated and are compared with a reactive protocol like AODV in order to gauge its performance. OLSR with MMPR shows a better throughput than AODV thus ensuring the effectiveness of the proposed protocol.

Mobile Adhoc Networks (MANETS) are gaining popularity because of interconnected networks. Routing is a key issue which needs to be addressed for efficient forwarding of packets from source to destination. Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) is a proactive or table driven routing protocol in MANETS which works on the principal of link sensing. Multi Point Relay (MPR) node is mainly responsible for forwarding of topology control messages in OLSR. In this work MPR node is selected on the basis of node’s willingness to be selected as MPR. Wireless links are generally much inferior and prone to link losses. Frequent link failures result in lesser QoS parameters such as lesser throughput, higher end to end delay, higher latency and less utilization of link bandwidth. Link quality is an important metric to be taken as a research topic while deciding routing protocol. Routing protocols suggested by many authors have proffered minimum hop routing which contains lossy links in wireless medium resulting in reduction of throughput. In this work, Link Defined OLSR (OLSR-LD) is proposed which considers quality of link while making routing decision. Extensive Simulations were performed using NS-2 Simulator by varying pause time of nodes, simulation time of nodes and speed of nodes.

A VANET is an excellent instance of a wireless sensor network. The mobile vehicles are the nodes and communication happens between the vehicular nodes. This facility of communicating with the vehicular nodes finds varied applications ranging from entertainment to emergency services. When combined with cognitive radio techniques, VANETs are equipped with the facility of sensing the spectrum opportunistically. When the spectrum is sensed efficiently, the channel and the bandwidth can be utilized effectively. To achieve this, we have coordinated the enhanced Optimal Link State Routing Protocol (MMPR-OLSR) with the GSA-PSO (Gravitational Search-Particle Swarm Optimization) scheme in combination with the cognitive radio technique. This technique can be applied to the Vehicular Sensor Networks. MMPR-OLSR with GSA-PSO optimization facilitates the MMPR-OLSR protocol to select the suitable member nodes using an optimal searching technique. The GSA-PSO optimization not only helps in choosing the appropriate MMPR nodes, but also helps in reducing the unnecessary overheads due to the propagation of the control packets. By selecting the appropriate MMPR nodes. It is also possible to minimize the number of relay selector nodes used in transmission. The optimization technique also focuses on assigning the channels among all the network users. This is controlled by our proposed approach. A group of nodes are selected before the start of the actual transmission. These vehicular nodes within the communication range are used as relays in the transmission. These nodes are categorized as Multi Point Relays. Cognitive radio plays an active role by identifying the idle channels, thus enabling the usage of the unused channels. Our proposed approach works efficiently in achieving the objective of effective channel utilization combined with efficient transmission. Our proposed approach is simulated using the NS2 platform and is evaluated based on important network metrics. Our proposed method shows a sharp decrease in delay and a high packet delivery ratio in addition to a high channel utilization. The proposed GSA-PSO approach decreases the delay associated with packet transmission and delivery in VANETs and also ensures a good PDR due to the effective channel utilization.

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) consists of mobile nodes communicating over wireless channels. Routing in MANETs is very challenging due to the random mobility of nodes and unreliability of wireless channels. Therefore most of the existing routing algorithms make only the best effort to find routes for communication but do not provide any performance guarantee. Because of the widespread use of MANETs in real-time applications, it becomes pertinent to provide deterministic network behavior. Quality of Service (QoS) aims to shape the network behavior and provide performance guarantees. In this work, a novel heuristic called Advanced-Optimised Link State Routing (A-OLSR) protocol is designed to provide QoS. It functions by enhancing the connectivity of nodes and establishing more stable routes as compared to standard best-effort Optimised Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol. The simulation results show that A-OLSR provides lower delay, reduces energy consumption and achieves higher throughput without introducing any additional routing overhead as compared to the standard OLSR and it's variants-A$$'$$?-OLSR and A$$''$$??-OLSR. The results also show that A-OLSR provides scalability since it's performance remains consistent with the increasing size of network.

Nowadays, ZigBee communication protocol is one of the dominating standards for wireless sensor & ad-hoc networks and Internet of Things (IoT) networks. Even though the ZigBee standard was formed with security in mind and lower consumption of power, still zigbee based wireless sensor & ad-hoc networks routing protocol facing the severe security risks due to wormhole attacks in network layer. In order to investigate the security attacks in routing protocols, this paper analyzed the performance of Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol, Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) and Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) in IEEE 802.15.4 based Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) in the presence of wormhole attacks. The metrics used to analyze the performance of reactive routing protocol (AODV), proactive (OLSR) and hybrid routing protocol (ZRP) in WSNs are throughput, average end-to-end delay, Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) and total energy consumption of sensor network. The simulation is done by using qualnet simulator 5.0. Keywords: Routing protocols, AODV, OLSR, ZRP, Wormhole attack, IEEE 802.15.4

With the growth in ad hoc devices, mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are extensively employed to realize different kinds of real-time applications. However, ad hoc devices suffer from numerous kinds of security attacks such as blackhole, grayhole, wormhole, etc. Therefore, an efficient trust management protocol is preferable. In this paper, a novel gradient boost classifier is proposed. Additionally, the hyper-parameters of gradient boost classifier are tuned using $$\theta $$ -non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-III ( $$\theta $$ NSGA-III). Optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol is employed for experimental analysis. A multi-class dataset is collected by implementing the blackhole, grayhole, and wormhole attacks on the OLSR. Comparative analysis reveals that the proposed $$\theta $$ NSGA-III-based gradient boost classifier outperforms the competitive attack classification models.

The bluetooth technology provides a point-to-point communication interface to mobile phones and other electronic devices, which can be used to form a self-organized ad hoc mesh network consists of mobile phones. In such a self-organized mesh network, the data packets are not transferred by traditional telecommunication backbone network but through bluetooth-based hop-by-hop routing among mesh nodes in the network. Such an ad hoc mesh network may find a wide span of application scenarios where access to backbone network infrastructure is not available, yet it needs an efficient routing protocol to provide a timely transmission mechanism for data packets to reach their destination even under situations when network topology is in constant changes due to mobile node’s movement. In the bluetooth-based device-to-device routing protocol (BDRP) presented in this paper, we propose several key designs as processed data table, node exclusion by packet and source control routing to provide an end-to-end packet transmission solution in a dynamically changing topology with constraints on network bandwidth, battery power, and storage space on a mobile device. The processed data table and node exclusion by packet mechanisms contribute to eliminating a great number of non-useful duplicate packets in routing path, and the source control routing algorithm implemented with a cross-layer packet retransmission process provides a fast and low-overhead routing policy and an assurance to packet reaching destination. In the simulation experiment conducted BDRP demonstrates its effectiveness and efficiency in eliminating undesirable duplicate packets and adaptability to constant topological changes. The performance comparison experiment indicates that the BDRP outperforms the optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol in packet arrival rate, particularly under situations when mobile nodes are in fast moving mode, yet manages to maintain the same level of transmission delay as OLSR’s even with the packet retransmission process. The work presented in this paper provides a key technology for the applications of Bluetooth mobile phone mesh network in a larger geographic area and a broader application domain.

UAVs have been widely used in various applications. Auto coordination of multiple UAVs through AI or mission planning software can provide significant improvements in many applications, including battlefield reconnaissance, topographical mapping, and search and rescue missions. Under such circumstances, the trajectory information is known for a set amount of time, and the system’s performance relies on the network between UAVs and their base. Here, a new protocol is proposed that takes the trajectory of UAVs as a known factor and uses it to improve optimized link state routing (OLSR). In this protocol, Q-learning is adopted to find the best route for the system. Additionally, a packet forwarding arrangement is described that addresses the common problem of deteriorating image quality often faced by UAVs. The simulation results show significant improvements over OLSR and GPSR under a sparsely distributed scenario, with the packet delivery ratio improved by over 30% and over 40 s reduction in the end-to-end delay.

The problem of routing in ad hoc networks, in particular proactive routing, has attracted the attention of many researchers. Although the protocols proposed in the literature present some relevant characteristics, they also have their limitations, especially in terms of high number of mobile nodes or in terms of high number of load-dependent parameters of the ad hoc network which are often chosen intuitively by a seasoned expert. This paper describes our work to solve this difficult task using a multi-objective genetic algorithm to automate the selection process of the routing protocol parameters. The realized experiments showed the effectiveness of the proposed NGSA-II-OLSR compared to the original OLSR. In case of low node mobility, the proposed NSGA-II-OLSR improves the PLR between 8.59 and 33.17%; the E2ED between 18.17 and 27.56%; and the NRL between 35.18 and 36.60%. While in case of high mobility node, it improves the PLR between 3.47 and 9.94%; the E2ED between 1.47 and 9.40%; and the NRL between 0.14 and 2.34%. In addition, the algorithm can adapt the ad hoc network to each topology change which makes it adaptive to any environment changing.

The mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are self-organizing networks. They use the mechanism of broadcasting to discover the links between nodes, to share the topology information, and to maintain the routing tables. However, the broadcasting suffers from redundant retransmissions causing radio resources waste and packet loss, especially in large networks. In this paper, we propose a new decentralized technique, called geographic forwarding rules (GFRs), to reduce the number of broadcast messages in mobile ad hoc networks. We use the location information of nodes to divide the network into virtual zones. Then we try to avoid duplicate retransmissions between the zones. Our proposition reduces the amount of overhead while it achieves a successful dissemination. We focused our research on the optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol, the most known proactive routing protocol in the MANETs. We demonstrate, by simulations, that our geographic forwarding rules keep the number of disseminated topology control (TC) messages less than that of the default forwarding rules (DFRs) of OLSR.

The dynamic nature of mobile nodes of ad hoc network is mostly affected by security problems which reduce data forwarding rate in multimedia sources. Due to the rapid growth of wireless applications, the different multitalented routing protocols are proposed in recent years. But the recent protocols are not efficient for multimedia applications, till now, specific security aware routing protocols are not proposed for multimedia data transfers. In this paper, we proposed trust enhanced cluster based multipath routing (TECM) algorithm. We use energy efficient PSO algorithm used to create cluster formation and cluster head, super cluster head are selected from trust values, which compute form proposed TECM algorithm. The multi trust factors are used for trust computation, such as frame/packet loss ratio, frame/packet forward energy, frame/packet receiving energy, routing overhead, received signal strength, frame/packet forward rate, average forward delay and protocol deviation flag. We then combine proposed TECM algorithm with standard multipath OLSR protocol (TECM-OLSR) to analyze the performance of proposed algorithm. The simulated results show that proposed TECM-OLSR protocol is very effective in terms of loss and delivery rate, delay, routing overhead and network lifetime compare to FPNT-OLSR.

The Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is formed by group of mobile nodes and such group of nodes is flexible in creating links with the other nodes in the network frequently. The routing protocols in the network layer helps in transmitting the data packets between the nodes in the network. The wireless devices use electromagnetic waves or the infrared waves as medium of transmission and each device have antennas for communication. This wireless channel is very unreliable and also unprotected from the interferences from outside. The optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol is an optimization of pure link state routing protocol. In this paper, the focus is on the active denial of service (DoS) attacks in the network layer routing protocol OLSR. Fictitious node based detection of DoS attacks are proposed by varying the number of fictitious nodes for particular number of network nodes and the parameters throughput,delay,packet delivery ratio and average delay are evaluated using network simulator and the results are compared.The number of fictitious nodes required for the maximum throughput of the given network is finally evaluated.

In this paper, we propose an efficient and energy-saving distributed network architecture based on clustering stratification to solve the information security problem of unmanned aerial vehicle ad hoc network communication. And a double-authentication watermarking strategy is designed. In order to ensure that the data collected by nodes can be sent securely to the cluster head node, we use the self-characteristic of the collected data to generate the authentication watermark and insert it into the collected data at random. The cluster head node first verifies the integrity of collected data and deletes the suspicious data. Then, the authentication information is generated by combining the chaotic mapping method, and the watermark is hidden by changing the parity of the least significant bits of the data. Experimental results show that the proposed security strategy can resist most attacks, such as selective forwarding, data replay and tampering. Meanwhile, it has low energy consumption and low latency.

In recent days vehicular ad-hoc networks find its extensive applications by broadcast transmissions. Vehicle to vehicle communication provide better results by avoiding the major problems in the road such as the collision of vehicles, better route selection during congestion, fuel consumption etc. In this paper we present a collision avoidance based protocol. The collision of transmitting data can be avoided using medium access control (MAC) protocol. We have assessed and analyzed the performance of the proposed routing protocol Vehicular Ad-hoc on-demand Distance Vector (VAODV), which is a modification of Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol. We have analysed the performance of the proposed VAODV protocol through simulation results and latter extended for OSPF ensuring high reliability.

Security in mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) is a key issue to be addressed. There are two separate approaches for security in MANETs viz., continuous authentication and intrusion detection. Previous studies in this regard involved a study of the two classes of issues separately. In this work these two classes of security approaches are integrated and combined into a single console. Continuous authentication acts as the first line of defense while intrusion detection system acts as the second. In this framework, biometric authentication is used for continuous authentication. The intrusion detection system has a detection engine and a response engine. The detection engine detects the malicious intruder and the response engine completely eliminates the above detected intruder from the network. The analysis of the security issues is simulated to produce the necessary results.

A vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle roadside wireless communication network is vehicular ad-hoc network (VANET) which is a unique mobile ad-hoc network. VANET is an independent network which can organize by itself as both servers and clients for exchanging and sharing information. In multi-fleet system, this acts as a mode of internal communication in sharing information between themselves. This work involves proposals for multi-fleet vehicles using VANET for integrating Wireless Sensor Networks. This is particularly used in sensors that are utilized in determining the fuel pilfering with the other vehicles. Due to frequent change in location and separation, it is hard to plan an effective routing protocol to route data between vehicles which is otherwise called V2V communication and Vehicle to road side Infrastructure. A delay tolerant network based clustering is used in enhancing the quality of service for effective communication between vehicles. Ant colony optimization (ACO)-GeoSpray routing is used to route between vehicles. Through ACO, the best multi hop routes are selected. The outcome of the study showed that a better performance was achieved through the proposed technique.

In table routing protocols such as link state routing, every node in the network periodically broadcasts its link state and the state of its neighbors. These routing updates result in the transmission of a large number of packets. Some of these packets contain correlated or even redundant data which could be compressed if there is central management in the network. However, in autonomous networks, each node acts as a router, in which case central coordination is not possible. In this paper, compressed sensing is used to reduce routing traffic overhead. This can be done at nodes which have greater processing capabilities and no power consumption limitations such as backbone nodes in wireless mesh networks. A method is proposed to select a subset of nodes and thus a subset of links to probe their state. The sensed states are encoded to generate a low dimension sampled vector. This compressed link state vector is broadcast to the entire network. Nodes can then reconstruct link states from this vector using side information. Performance results are presented which demonstrate accurate anomaly detection while adapting to topology changes. Further, it is shown that a proper choice of weighting coefficients in the sampling process can improve detection performance.

Due to the technological advancement in Low Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs), sensor node mobility becomes a basic requirement for many extensive applications. Routing protocol designed for LLNs must ensure real-time data transmission with minimum power consumption. However, the existing mobility support protocols cannot work efficiently in LLNs as they are unable to adapt to the change in the network topology quickly. Therefore, we propose an Enhanced Routing Protocol for LLNs (ERPL), which updates the Preferred Parent (PP) of the Mobile Node (MN) quickly whenever the MN moves away from the already selected PP. Further, a new objective function that takes the mobility of the node into an account while selecting a PP is proposed. Performance of the ERPL has been evaluated with the varying system and traffic parameters under different topologies similar to most of the real-life networks. The simulation results showed that the proposed ERPL reduced the power consumption, packet overhead, latency and increased the packet delivery ratio as compared to other existing works.

Security in communication is an important and challenging issue in the recent years. In the past, many secure routing algorithms have been proposed to provide energy efficiency and security in Mobile Ad hoc Networks. However due to the increase in attackers and new types of attacks, the existing secure routing techniques are challenged by malicious users. In order to handle these problems, a new trust and fuzzy cluster based dynamic secure routing algorithm is proposed in this paper for enhancing energy efficiency and security. For this purpose, a new trust model which uses historical trust, neighbor trust and behavioral trust is proposed in this work for isolating the malicious nodes in the routing process. Moreover, the fuzzy clustering technique proposed in this paper provides energy efficiency by applying cluster head based routing, cluster head rotation and fuzzy decision making. The fuzzy rules also help to handle the uncertainty occurring due to the movement of nodes in the network. From the experiments conducted in this work, it is proved that the proposed algorithm enhances the security of communication which in turn increases the packet delivery ratio and reduces the delay.

Recently, the use of real-time multimedia applications has attracted the attention of mobile ad hoc network users. These applications support service quality. The characteristics of mobile ad hoc networks such as lack of central coordinator, mobility of hosts, dynamic changes in network topology and the limitation of access to resources have caused remarkable challenges in providing high quality services for mobile ad hoc networks. Bandwidth limitation of wireless nodes and the lack of adequate multicast trees are regarded as the main challenges for quality of service-based multicast routing. In this paper, an attempt was made to propose a more stable and more reliable in multi-path quality of service multicast routing protocol (SR-MQMR) for mobile ad-hoc networks. In the proposed method, considering the requested bandwidth, the researchers first used the signal strength of nodes to select the most stable nodes. Then, using the two parameters of route expiration time and the number of hops, we selected a route which had low delay and high stability. The results of simulations conducted in the present study indicated that the SR-MQMR protocol used less time slots than the MQMR protocol in the routing process which resulted in an increase in success ratio. Furthermore, the production of stable routes led to a significant enhancement of reliability. Since the reduction of route request packet exchange decreased overhead in the proposed method, the degree of consumed bandwidth decreased which led to an increase in network lifetime.

Mobile learning (M learning) supports ubiquitous learning thus is a strong contender in distance learning. One of the challenge faced in development of m learning is an efficient and secure communication network. Mobile ad hoc network (MANET) refers to a set of wireless mobile nodes possessing no centralized architecture as well as a dynamic topology. One of the fast evolving application in MANET is mobile-learning (m learning). Security in MANET’s is a challenge due to its open medium. The routing assumes that all the nodes in the network are trustworthy which leaves the network vulnerable to attacks. Trust management schemes are popularly used for secure routing, verification, interruption location, and access control. In this work, clustering and trust is used for mitigating maliciousness and formation of clusters is optimized using heuristic method. Swarm intelligence (SI) is an efficient option for optimizing routing in a complex network situation, where traditional routing strategies come up short. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) employs the concept of social interactions to get optimal solutions. Simulation results proved that the proposed PSO with weighted trust model achieves better performance for packet delivery ratio, end to end delays as well as cluster formation in malicious environment.

A novel approach is proposed to estimate the timeout period used in wireless ad hoc networks in order to detect misbehaving nodes that make black hole attacks. Timeout period is an acceptable time frame for a node to forward a packet and is used to judge if the node is behaving properly. To avoid misjudgment and false alarms, the accuracy of the estimate of the timeout period is very important. Our method is based on the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol and Dynamic Source Routing protocol. The main contribution of this paper is proposing a queuing analysis to calculate the mean and maximum delay per hop implementing the 95-percentile of medium access waiting time. In addition, a new technique is introduced that can be applied to determine the mean number of hops in flooding-based ad hoc networks, taking into account edge effects. For each proposed model, analytical results are compared with results obtained from simulations and the validity of the models is confirmed by observing the close relationship between the results.

In mobile Ad Hoc networks (MANETs), flooding-based route discovery is usually preferred in order to set up the route with reliability between transmission pair. However, this approach may cause a serious contention in transmission between adjacent nodes and a considerable amount of control packets. In addition, most of Ad Hoc routing protocols establish the route with minimum hop count. Consequently, the performance of Ad Hoc routing protocol is considerably affected by link (or route) duration since the network comprises the nodes with unrestricted mobility and constrained range in transmission. This paper proposes novel routing protocol that aims to (1) minimize routing overhead in route discovery procedure, and (2) guarantee a reliable and fast packet delivery between source and destination, especially in providing real-time applications over MANETs. To achieve this objective, we introduce relay region (RR) within the transmission range of nodes in order to select optimal next relaying nodes for supporting specific application requirements in route discovery procedure. The RR is defined by the limited distance progress in transmission to next relaying node in order to maintain the established route for an arbitrary length of time (i.e., route duration) while meeting packet delivery reliability and delay constraints. In performance evaluation, the simulation results showed that the proposed scheme can significantly improve the performance in comparison with the previous routing algorithms in terms of packet delivery ratio and packet delivery latency, reducing transmission redundancy in route discovery procedure.

Route maintenance protocol has a tradeoff between the amount of control overhead and the provision of useful alternative paths. To break through this tradeoff, we consider a bio-inspired approach based on the natural phenomena of ant pheromone. The pheromone is accumulated on the shortest path between the nest and the food, and then diffused into its vicinity over time. Thus, the ants can find another route along this locally diffused pheromone when the shortest path in use is blocked. Based on this local pheromone diffusion and rerouting behavior, we propose a new route maintenance protocol for mobile ad hoc networks. First, pheromones (i.e., routing information) are locally diffused around the shortest path between the source and the destination (i) by overhearing at the one-hop neighbors from the shortest path and (ii) by sharing the overheard pheromone information among the one-hop neighbors. Thereafter, a probabilistic path exploration is executed within the one-hop region based on the locally diffused pheromone and so useful alternative paths around the shortest path are discovered. Through intensive simulations, we verify that the proposed regional route maintenance protocol outperforms the conventional routing protocols in terms of disruption frequency, delivery ratio, delay, and jitter, while reducing the control overhead.

Efficient and reliable routing plays a key role in wireless sensor networks in which routing design with regard to network availability and node lifetime needs to be deliberately considered. When multi-hop relay transmission is frequently applied to reduce a source node's energy consumption and improve network capacity, a key issue affecting the nodes' participation in the transmission is the problem of suitably determining the next hop in order to prolong each node's lifetime and to maintain the energy-balancing of the whole network. In this study, we propose an energy-aware routing scheme by taking the Cauchy operator, node's residual energy and routing distance into account. Based on Cauchy inequation, we achieve a relationship between the routing distance and the energy usage in the routing. By fixing a relay selection parameter and then identifying the next hop appropriately, we obtain a balancing energy-aware routing algorithm. Numerical results are provided to verify the lifetime and equilibrium of the energy distribution by comparing with them with those of a traditional approach.

In promising application field such as Vehicular Ad hoc Networks, the ability of the driver to exchange video streams smoothly over the network regardless of his position is one of the most incentive features. However, dynamic nature of mobility and current obstacles in urban areas bring considerable challenges to routing. To give gratifying transmission performances, the vehicular networks must ensure Quality of Experience as well as keeping a tolerable Quality of Service (QoS). Furthermore, studying and comparing the efficiency of existing protocols have been challenging since each protocol is appropriate to a specific environment of application. Additionally, the lack in literature of quantitative comparison between the existing video stream requirements-based study, led us in this survey to analyze ten promising routing protocols focusing on communication challenges. Since the protocol chosen in the industrial world depends on certain metrics including video stream requirements, the paper shows also which protocols are suitable for MPEG-4 video quality by raking merits of QoS.

A sensor network consists of many sensor nodes scattered throughout a geographic area. The sensor nodes communicate by radio to ensure the network operations and to route the data to the sink. The problem we are interested in this work relates to the optimization of the quality of service (QoS) in wireless sensor networks. In this paper, we proposed a routing protocol adaptive to the QoS at the network layer. Therefore, a variant of the RPAR protocol was proposed and we called: Greedy Realtime Power Aware Routing (GRPAR), to ensure an optimal quality of service. Simulation results showed that GRPAR improves the performance compared to RPAR in terms of end-to-end delay, packets delivery ratio and energy conservation.

Non-uniform node densities occur and intermittent links exist in highly dynamic ad hoc networks. To fit these networks, researchers usually combine delay tolerant network (DTN) routing protocols and mobile ad hoc network (MANET) routing protocols. The DTN protocol separates end-to-end links into multiple DTN links, which consist of multi-hop MANET links. Determining how to arrange DTN links and MANET links from source to end and dealing with intermittent links are performance issues, because node density ranges from sparse to dense and MANET protocols are much lighter than DTN protocols. This paper presents HMDTN, an application-network cross-layer framework, to solve the previously mentioned issues. The application layer in HMDTN supports disrupt tolerance with a large data buffer while adjusting the routing table on the basis of the connection state of links (link is disrupted or recovered), which are collected by the network layer. As a result, HMDTN increases the bandwidth utilization of intermittent links without compromising the efficiency of the MANET protocol in a reliable network. The HMDTN prototype was implemented based on Bytewalla (a Java version of DTN2) and Netfilter-based AODV. Experiments on Android devices show that unlike AODV and Epidemic, HMDTN increases the bandwidth utilization of intermittent links with a negligible increase of network overhead. In particular, HMDTN maintains the network throughput as high as regular network conditions even if the network undergoes relatively long-term (dozens of seconds or few minutes) data link disruptions.

MANET (mobile ad-hoc network) includes a set of wireless mobile nodes which communicate with one another without any central controls or infrastructures and they can be quickly implemented in the operational environment. One of the most significant issues in MANETs is concerned with finding a secure, safe and short route so that data can be transmitted through it. Although several routing protocols have been introduced for the network, the majority of them just consider the shortest path with the fewest number of hops. Hop criterion is considered for simple implementation and it is reliable in dynamic environments; however, queuing delay and connection delay in the intermediate nodes are not taken into consideration for selecting route in this criterion. In this paper, a fuzzy logic-based reliable routing protocol (FRRP) is proposed for MANETs which selects stable routes using fuzzy logic. It is able to optimize system efficiency. The score allocated to routes are based on four criteria: accessible bandwidth, the amount of energy of battery, the number of hops and the degree of dynamicity of nodes. The simulation results obtained from OPNET simulator version 10.5 indicate that the proposed protocol, in comparison with ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) and fuzzy-based on-demand routing protocol (FBORP), was able to better improve packet delivery rate, average end-to-end delay and throughput.

Efficiency can be achieved in CEAACK MANETs by implementing clustering technique into the network. Using this strategy the cluster head can monitor the members and also take the responsibility of routing the data packets to their destination. The cluster head has to coordinate with the base station for packet transmission. Generally route maintenance and route discovery is a very important mechanism for maintaining route life. In a route discovery, normally we are using flooding scheme for sending and receiving the route request and route reply message. Based on the route discovery, the routing methods are categorized into Proactive and Reactive methods. Reactive Routing Protocol is also called On Demand Routing Protocol like AODV and DSR. These two protocols help to reduce the overhead involved in routing. We propose a novel protocol STFDR (Secure Three Fish Dynamic Routing), which provides an efficient route discovery technique along with a competent dynamic broadcast algorithm. The overhead in routing can further be reduced by gaining knowledge about the neighbouring nodes. The proposed algorithm will help fix a route for packet forwarding and also utilize the information of the neighbouring nodes effectively. This algorithm is a unique dynamic routing protocol that provides a secure and a reliable network environment. The aim of our proposed protocol is to provide an environment where only the trusted nodes participate in route discovery and secure packet transmission.

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET’s) popularly uses ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol. Past research has identified certain limitations on performance on AODV. This work discusses the results of a new protocol, improved directional AODV (ID-AODV) routing protocol; that has succeeded in improving the performance of MANET’s for energy, delay, packet delivery ratio and overheads as compared with networks using AODV. In ID-AODV, improvements are carried out in both network layer, and data link layer. The directionality is introduced based on hop count of its position from the source. The dual sensing directional media access control protocol is used to eliminate the hidden terminal, exposed terminal, and deafness issue. Participation of nodes in forming route is decided by checking remaining energy level of the node and also checking its load. A modified algorithm is used to reduce the delay. This algorithm reduces the delay by changing the time to live, wait time, and using expanded ring search technique. The simulation results show that the ID-AODV offers improved performance on average Energy consumption in the range of 17–20%, average end to end delay is lower by 61 to 95%, Overheads improved in the range of 10–13%, Jitter 6–21%, link break 43–52%, packet delivery ratio is 6–21% lower as compared to MANETS deploying AODV.

Network connectivity is the critical issue in the internet of things. Due to the node mobility and randomly deployed nodes, the performance of the mobile ad hoc network may reduce the performance improvement. By using the proposed software-based heuristic clustered (SBHC) technique, can increase the performance of the mobile ad hoc network. This proposed SBHC technique can involve in three different stages such as clustering formation, software-based clustering, and heuristic clustered routing protocol. In clustering formation, cluster head will be selected based on the weighted clustering algorithm. Software-based clustering assigns the task scheduling and avoid the node failure. Heuristic clustering routing protocol is used to create the routing path between the cluster head, gateway and cluster members. This proposed SBHC technique, increases the network performance by using the quality of service parameters that was shown in the simulation results.

Vehicular Ad-hoc network (VANET) is a self-organized ad hoc network. VANET becomes a most challenging research area as it has several issues related to routing protocols, quality of service, security, etc. Vehicular communication is critically unsafe to several kinds of active and passive routing attacks. This paper analyzes the impact of a compromised node (vehicle) on zone routing protocol and ad-hoc on-demand distance vector, and recommends a suitable solution called secure vehicular on demand routing to find out and mitigate the black hole attack. The given study analyses the effect of vehicle density on the average throughput, packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, normalized routing load and average path length.

Routing strategies need to strike a balance between responsiveness and energy efficiency. Achieving this balance poses new challenges that do not coalesce either with infrastructure or ad hoc wireless networks performance requirements. Multiple strategies have emerged as a workable solution to the routing problem. Either of these solutions however cater to but one of the many constraints posed by the networks. To address this issue we propose a delay sensitive energy efficient reliable routing (DSERR) algorithm which achieves application specified soft delays with energy scavenging being the foremost concern. We try to provide soft end-to-end (e2e) delay guarantee that is proportional to the distance between the source and destination. Our algorithm uses the per hop greedy selection for soft real-time guarantees as it is impossible to provide hard guarantees in a dynamic network. DSERR presents a stateless architecture providing hop by hop reliability of data delivery to support desired delivery reliability across the sensor network.

Ad-hoc social networks are required to strengthen local communication between people. Mobile ad-hoc social networks have emerged as self-configuring and self-organizing social networks to facilitate interactions among different mobile users without Internet. Contextual routing based on social patterns has been proposed and advantageous for ad-hoc social networks. Social profile aware routing protocol proposed in this paper allows users to use social networking applications using social routing protocol. The protocol has been implemented on network simulator ns-2 and is also available as a patch file for other researchers. Results indicate protocol has low overhead with 64 nodes. Results have been presented for packet delivery ratio, and average end-to-end delay. The need of multi-hop social network was also studied and observed that probability of nodes being connected at mult-hop increases with increment of number of nodes and geographical area.