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Background The populations in Ethiopia have developed their indigenous knowledge to use, manage and conserve wild edible plants (WEPs). In the eastern part of Ethiopia, wild edible plants are used as a means of survival during times of food shortage and as dietary supplements. Documenting the traditional and cultural use of wild food plants is a vital step in obtaining baseline data for investigating nutritional values and possible side effects, preserving indigenous knowledge, and ultimately interesting in wild edible plant conservation. However, their significance, management and utilization have not been documented in Mieso District. Therefore, this study aimed to provide documentation of wild edible plant use associated with ethnobotanical knowledge in Mieso District, eastern Ethiopia. Methods An ethnobotanical study of wild edible plant species was conducted from March 2021 to May 2022. A total of 120 (72 males and 48 females) informants were selected using the snowball method. Data collection methods, including semistructured interviews, direct observation and field walks were used. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, including independent sample t test and analysis of variance (ANOVA). We calculated use values (UVs) to analyse the relative cultural importance of each plant species. Results A total of 41 wild edible plant species belonging to 33 genera in 21 families were documented to be used as food sources both during times of food shortage and as dietary supplements. Family Malvaceae was best-represented with 6 species, followed by Fabaceae and Rhamnaceae (4 species each). The dominant growth form (habit) was shrubs (30 species), followed by trees (11 species). The most widely used plant parts were fruits (covering 39 species, 95%). The largest number (23 species) was collected from forest habitats only, followed by both village and forest habitats (8 species). The majority of wild edible plants (28 species or 68%) were consumed only during famine or in the time of food shortage followed by supplementing staple foods (9 species or 22%). Wild edible plants in Mieso are used for multiple other uses, including for fodder, fuel, medicine, construction, cosmetics and bee keeping. Twenty-three species were mentioned for fodder use, followed by fuel purpose (21 species) and medicinal value (13 species). The species that had the highest use values were Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. (1.4), Carissa spinarum L. (1.1), Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. (0.6), Grewia villosa Willd. (0.5), Cordia monoica Roxb. (0.3) and Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (L.) (0.2). Most WEPs were collected from March to May (Badheysa) (33 species). The highest mentioned wild edible plant sold in the market was F. indica (Burm.f.) Merr. mentioned by 20 informants, followed by Z. spina-christi (L.) Desf. (14). Conclusion The people in Mieso use wild plants as supplementary food to cultivated crops, during famine, and many could be utilized for day-to-day human consumption. Some plants in the district provide cash income for local people. However, deforestation (54%), drought (22%) and agricultural expansion (12%) were the highest threats to wild plants in Mieso District. Hence, on-site and off-site conservation would help protect wild plant resources in Mieso, eastern Ethiopia.

BackgroundThis study investigated the spatial distribution of wild ungulates that pastoralist communities perceive as culprits in the transmission of cattle diseases outside protected areas in southwestern Uganda. Diseases are hypothesized as having influence on pastoralists' choice of cattle breed types. Until now, there have been no studies conducted on spatial patterns of wild animal species association with cattle breeds reared in Lake Mburo Conservation Area (LMCA), and how diseases transmitted therein potentially influence cattle breed herd sizes.MethodsAnimal population survey was carried out on cattle and wild ungulate species along transect lines laid perpendicular to the northern boundary of Lake Mburo National Park (LMNP). Data on the costs of cattle mortality and disease control were gathered using face-to-face interviews. We used SPSS version 17 for descriptive statistics to summarize unit cost of disease control at herd level, whereas chi-square (chi 2) tests of goodness-of-fit were used to analyze observations on frequency of wild animal sightings, whose association with spatial distribution patterns of cattle breeds was examined using Pearson correlation test.ResultsOur results show inverse association of distance away from LMNP with wild animal populations and the cost of cattle disease control. The mean population of exotic cattle significantly increased as that of indigenous cattle decreased with increasing distance from LMNP. In a similar way, the cost of disease control and cattle abortion incidences were much lower in rangelands far away from LMNP (R-2 = 0.965, p < 0.001).ConclusionSpatial distribution of wild ungulates was significantly associated with reported cattle mortality, disease, and cost of disease control. Diseases and their costs of control potentially influenced spatial patterns of cattle breeds and breed herd sizes in LMCA, which in turn could affect range resource use for conserving different species of wild animals outside protected area.

We report on 14 microsatellites enriched in CT repeats obtained from a genomic library of lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) cultivar “Hong Huay”. The polymorphisms revealed by these microsatellites were evaluated in a collection of 45 local Vietnamese lychee varieties and 4 Xerospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume (Sapindaceae) collected from the wild. Samples were collected from local villages and forests in northern Vietnam. Genetic diversity parameters were estimated for the local Vietnamese varieties analyzed. The unweighted pair-group method of clustering using averages divided the lychee cultivars into three main groups: Cluster 1 (Group A) consisting of semi-natural lychees (“extremely early” lychee); Cluster 2 (Group B) consisting of cultivated cultivars (“intermediate” lychee); and Cluster 3 (Group C) representing X. noronhianum accessions. Using STRUCTURE, three subpopulations were also delimited among litchi accessions, including accessions with extremely early- and intermediate/late-maturing traits showing membership coefficients above 0.99 for Cluster 1 and Cluster 2, respectively. Accessions with early- and intermediate-maturing traits were identified as admixture forms with varying levels of membership shared between the two clusters, indicating their hybrid origin during litchi domestication. This is the first report on transferability of SSR markers developed from lychee (L. chinensis) to X. noronhianum. Results demonstrate the usefulness of microsatellites for identification, genetic diversity analysis and germplasm conservation in lychee and related Sapindaceae forest species.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.

Background The phytotherapeutic knowledge of the Kongo people in the territories of Kisantu and Mbanza-Ngungu in Kongo-Central Province (DR Congo) is rapidly eroding. To document the remaining knowledge, we conducted an ethnobotanical survey on the most important medicinal plant species and diseases treated with them, as well as plants with therapeutic potential. We also checked for the cultural similarity in medicinal plant knowledge between the two territories and how knowledge about Kongo medicinal plants differs between different social groups. Methods From June 2017 until February 2018 and from February 2019 until April 2019, we conducted a survey with 188 phytotherapists, selected using the snowball method and surveyed using semi-structured interviews. Voucher specimens were taken for identification. Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using medicinal use value (UVs), informant agreement ratio (IARs), informant consensus factor (ICF), and species therapeutic potential (STP). Rahman’s similarity index was used for ethno-cultural comparison of medicinal plant knowledge between the two communities. Medicinal knowledge between different social groups was analyzed using non-parametric tests and Poisson regression. Results A total of 231 plants (i.e., 227 botanical species, representing 192 genera and 79 families) were reportedly used to treat 103 diseases. Most abundant taxa were reported for the Fabaceae family (including 11.9% of species and 10.9% of genera). Most reported species (45.0%) were from anthropized areas. Leaves (39.4%), herbs (37.1%), decoction (41.7%), and oral ingestion (72%) were the most frequently cited plant part, botanical form, preparation, and administration method, respectively. Four of all inventoried species showed high UVS (> 0.05), whereas eight had an IAR of one. According to ICF, 31 diseases were mentioned. Highest ICF (≥ 0.4) was observed for hemorrhoids (0.44), amoebiasis (0.43), and itchy rash (0.42). Fifty-four plant species were identified as likely possessing an interesting therapeutic potential. Low ethno-cultural similarity in medicinal knowledge (RSI = 16.6%) was found between the two territories. Analysis of the Kongo medicinal plant knowledge showed that the mean number of reported species and diseases vary considerably depending on gender, type, and residence of therapists (P < 0.05). Conclusion Results prove that the Kongo phytopharmacopeia makes use of interesting medicinal plant species that could be further studied for conservation and pharmacological applications.

Background Ethnic groups throughout the world have developed their own cultures expressed in the form of customs, taboos, and traditional healthcare systems. Traditional medicine system is one of the widespread cultures known throughout the world which is very much tied to cultural practices of the community or ethnic group. Medicinal plant treasure found in Gurage and Silti zones remained poorly characterized and understood. Therefore, this study was conducted in four ethnic groups: three from Gurage zone (Gurage, Qebena, and Mareqo) and one from Silti zone (Silti) which have lived in close proximity and contact for many centuries in the respective zones. In the present study, unique and shared cultural elements in connection to traditional herbal medicine were examined through investigation of the diversity of medicinal plants. Moreover, attempts have been made to determine similarities among the society in the medicinal plants they have used in general and in medicinal plant species considered culturally most important. Methods In a study that involved 320 randomly sampled informants, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation were used and qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Descriptive statistics, rank order priority (ROP), informant consensus factor, Jaccard similarity coefficient, and clustering were used for data analysis. Results A total of 244 medicinal plant species and a fungal species used to treat human and/or livestock ailments were documented. The number of plants (80 plants, 33 %) with ROP value greater than 50% were considerably fewer than that of plants with ROP < 50% (164, 67 %). Jaccard similarity index and clustering analysis for all cited plants, among the respective studied districts, indicated that grouping generally followed the existing ethnic origin. On the contrary, clustering based on culturally important medicinal plant species (80 plant species, score ROP ≥ 50%) showed the influence of proximity and geographical orientation rather than ethnic relation. Conclusions Culturally, most important plants (80 spp.) are widely used and best shared with nearby communities and this could imply current (new) knowledge being practiced in the communities. This knowledge must be documented and better utilized in a modern way including modernized use of traditional medicinal plants.

The economic literature provides evidence thatgrowth is associated with positive performance of the financial sector. This aspect is particularly important for developing countries. This study aims to investigate whether, in an environment of growing competition and regulation, the maintenance of their social mission may have led microfinance institutions (MFIs) to compromise their performance, in terms of efficient production of credit services. To this purpose, we use a two-stage approach to analyze the relationship between outreach and efficiency of MFIs in Bangladesh. In the first stage, a dynamic data envelopment analysis is exploited to measure the efficiency of MFIs from 2009 to 2014. The results show that most of the MFIs are operationally inefficient over the period, suggesting a considerable potential for future improvement. In the second stage, the study examines the potential trade-off between MFIs’ commitment to financial inclusion and depth of outreach on the one hand and efficiency on the other hand, using a double bootstrapping methodology that helps in limiting the problems arising from the endogenous nature of the measures of outreach with respect to efficiency. The results show that financial inclusion is positively associated with MFIs’ efficiency, whereas the relationship between deepening and efficiency turns up negative, providing partial evidence in support of ‘mission drift’ in the Bangladesh microfinance industry.This may be indicative of the fact that MFIs with stronger commercial objectives have expanded their business and their margins of efficiency to compete with other intermediaries. In contrast, the MFIs with a more intense social strategy may have suffered a decrease in their operating efficiency in order to maintain their social mission. Policy implications point towards a greater degree of awareness on the part of the regulatory authorities of the consequences of imposing constraints on the operating mechanisms of the microfinance industry, such as interest rate caps. We also suggest that rules disciplining competition should not be uniform, but rather tailored to specific outreach indicators.

The rooting of Allanblackia stem cuttings is typically slow and with the formation of very few roots. Irradiance has positive effects on the relative growth of plants and rooting ability, but there is no information relating to Allanblackia species. Stumps of Allanblackia floribunda Oliv. were grown under three levels of irradiance (2008 µmol m−2s−1, 542 µmol m−2s−1 and 160 µmol m−2s−1) and were assessed for growth (plant height and the number of cuttings) and the influence of irradiance on the rooting ability of leafy stem cuttings. Shade light regime 542 µmol m−2s−1 resulted in significantly greater stockplant height than in 160 and 2008 µmol m−2s−1. Significantly more useable cuttings were harvested from the tall plants under an irradiance of 542 µmol m−2s−1, fewer from 160 µmol m−2s−1, and the least from 2008 µmol m−2s−1. The rooting ability of cuttings was greatest from stockplants receiving 542 µmol m−2s−1 (> 60%) and least from those receiving 160 µmol m−2s−1 (20%). 45% of cutting rooted from stockplants under full sun (2008 µmol m−2s−1). The speed of rooting of cuttings followed the same ranking with the fastest rooting from plants receiving 542 µmol m−2s−1 (7.1 ± 1.04 weeks to reach 25% of rooting) and the slowest from those under 160 µmol m−2s−1 (12.3 ± 1.85 weeks to reach 25% of rooting). The results of this study demonstrate that the light management of A. floribunda stockplants is important for the maximization of the yielding of cutting and the speed of rooting of leafy stem cuttings. Tree plantation being a key option to alleviate environmental challenges that the world is facing today, these results confirm previous findings which postulates that appropriate light management in stockplants can increase the production speed of required seedlings.

Climate change vulnerability may differ among small farming communities and depend on combinations of multiple social and biophysical processes. In this study, we assessed vulnerability to climate change among maize-dependent smallholders in three districts of Ethiopia. Household socio-demographic factors, land use system, access to food, natural hazard, livelihood strategy and social network data were collected and subsequently analysed by the livelihood vulnerability index and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Vulnerability Index approaches. Results show that within the same production system, smallholder farmers experience different degrees of climate change vulnerability. This variation in climate change vulnerability is highly and significantly explained by very localized socio-economic factors such as household educational level, access to drought-resistant crop varieties, extent of family ties with social groups and local organizations, and quality of rural water supply and health infrastructures along with biophysical factors like land size and soil fertility status. It is, therefore, suggested that recognizing smallholder farmers’ relative vulnerability to climate change provides a range of effective coping strategies that would help to better build household resilience capacity and promote sustainable livelihood development. Hence, policymakers and development organizations need to focus on better strengthening human and institutional capacity through enhanced education and continuous training on climate change impact, and efficient and sustainable intensification through crop rotation, fertilizer use, rainwater harvesting and farm diversification that increase productivity by restoring soil and agroecosystem health.

The main goal of this study is to gain insight into the relationship between the genetic profile of cultivated rice (Oryza spp.) accessions and their resistance to rice blast. Therefore, the genetic and phenotypic variability of a set of 350 cultivated rice accessions originating from Africa (Benin, Mali and Nigeria, Ivory Coast etc.) was examined. Seventy-seven fluorescent amplified fragment polymorphism (AFLP) markers were used to gain insight into the genetic variation and to classify the germplasm collection. In addition, the rice germplasm was assessed for its resistance to blast disease caused by Pyricularia oryzae in upland field conditions. Huge differences in responses of rice accessions to P. oryzae were observed, ranging from highly susceptible to highly resistant. Twelve percent of all accessions were highly resistant to P. oryzae. Based on their AFLP marker profile these highly resistant accessions could be separated from the other accessions. Stepwise regression revealed that the best prediction of the blast resistance level was achieved with a maximum number of 13 AFLP markers. Marker CTA22 was the most important for accurate prediction of blast resistance, this marker was present in all highly resistant accessions. It can be concluded that AFLP markers are a valuable tool to screen rice accessions for their susceptibility towards blast disease and that, based on a subset of markers, it is possible to predict the resistance to rice blast.

In the present study, the data-driven (classification trees and support vector machines) and multivariate techniques (principal component analysis and discriminant analysis) were applied to study the habitat preferences of an invasive aquatic fern (Azolla filiculoides) in the Selkeh Wildlife Refuge (a protected area in Anzali wetland, northern Iran). The applied database consisted of measurements from seven different sampling sites in the protected area over the study period 2007–2008. The cover percentage of the exotic fern was modelled based on various wetland characteristics. The predictive performances of the both data-driven methods were assessed based on the percentage of Correctly Classified Instances and Cohen’s kappa statistics. The results of the Paired Student’s t-test (p < 0.01) showed that SVMs outperformed the CTs and thus yielded more reliable prediction than the CTs. All data mining and multivariate techniques showed that both physical-habitat and water quality variables (in particular some nutrients) might affect the habitat requirements of A. filiculoides in the wetland.

BackgroundWorldwide, the number of wild and domesticated food species is declining, which endangers dietary diversity of particularly indigenous people. Unfortunately, eating culture and traditional knowledge is also hampered when food species are no longer available.MethodsThis study reports the food biodiversity in Guasaganda, Central Ecuador, using a combination of methods aiming to inform local initiatives.Results and discussionThe number of species includes 49 wild, 41 cultivated, and 28 semi-cultivated plants and 13 wild, 9 domesticated, and 1 semi-domesticated animal species. Although, Guasaganda is a hot spot of plant and animal diversity, a limited number of plant (3.00 SD 1.45) and animal species (2.37 SD 1.44) are available at the farm.ConclusionIncreasing the number of edible species in the food system is imperative for dietary diversity. Further research should document the consumption of the reported foods, and the nutrient and biochemical content to assess nutrient adequacy of the diet.

A study was carried out to assess the growth, flowering and fruiting of stecklings (rooted cuttings), grafts and seedlings of Allanblackia floribunda in Cameroun. Thirty-one individuals of each plantlet type were planted in May 2006. Height, collar and crown diameters were recorded in September and October, while flowering and fruiting were recorded each month from January to December. In 2014, the trees with the greatest height were those from seeds (6.98 ± 0.25 m), followed by those from grafts (1.65 ± 0.23 m) and cuttings (1.09 ± 0.21 m). Grafts started flowering and fruiting 3 years after planting, while seedlings started flowering and fruiting after four and 6 years, respectively. Stecklings still had not flowered 8 years after planting. Fruit weight and length from seed-origin trees are about seven times higher than grafts. Correlations between height and crown diameter were significant and positive irrespective of the nature of the planting material. In conclusion, grafts fruited earlier, while seedlings grew faster and had greater yields than grafts and stecklings of A. floribunda.

To fully exploit the diversity in African rice germplasm and to broaden the gene pool reliable information on the population genetic diversity and phenotypic characteristics is a prerequisite. In this paper, the population structure and genetic diversity of 42 cultivated African rice (Oryza spp.) accessions originating from West Africa (Benin, Mali and Nigeria, Liberia etc.) were investigated using 20 simple sequence repeats (SSR) and 77 amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP). Additionally, field trials were set up to gain insight into phenotypic characteristics that differentiate the genetic populations among rice accessions. The analysis revealed considerably high polymorphisms for SSR markers (PIC mean = 0.78) in the germplasm studied. A significant association was found between AFLP markers and geographic origin of rice accessions (R = 0.72). Germplasm structure showed that Oryza sativa accessions were not totally isolated from Oryza glaberrima accessions. The results allowed identification of five O. glaberrima accessions which grouped together with O. sativa accessions, sharing common alleles of 18 loci out of the 20 SSR markers analyzed. Population structure analysis revealed existence of a gene flow between O. sativa and O. glaberrima rice accessions which can be used to combine several interesting traits in breeding programs. Further studies are needed to clarify the contributions of this gene flow to valuable traits such as abiotic and biotic stresses including disease resistance.

Our study addressed the effect of granular NPK 20-10-10 doses (0, 25 and 50 g/plant) applied to A. floribunda stockplants on growth of stockplant and the effect on rooting ability of foliar NPKs (15-15-30, 20-20-20 and 30-10-10) applied on leafy stem cuttings in propagators at different physiological stages of rooting process (setting, callus initiation and both). Results show that fertilizer doses significantly (p = 0.03) affect the number of cuttings that could be produced by stockplants 6 months after application. The mean number of cuttings per plant increased with fertilizer doses with the highest value of 11.06 ± 0.41 % for 50 g. Application of NPK 20-20-20 foliar fertilizer on stem cuttings at callus stage, significantly (p = 0.04) boosted rooting of stem cuttings after 28 weeks (85.71 ± 4.1 %). Number of roots per cutting was not significantly different (p = 0.98). However, the highest frequency of cuttings displayed three roots was observed on NPK 20-20-20 (To + Cal) and NPK 30-10-10 (To + Cal). From this study, we can conclude that, 50 g of NPK 20-10-10 fertilizer application on stockplants produced the greatest number of vegetal material. Treated with NPK 20-20-20 at callus initiation stage or both (i.e. at setting and at callus initiation stage), rooting performs better.

Genetic diversity of 70 Mediterranean lentil (Lens culinaris ssp. culinaris Medicus) landraces was assessed using simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). These landraces were also assessed for variation in root and shoot traits and drought tolerance as estimated by relative water content (RWC), water losing rate (WLR) and wilting score (WS). Genetic diversity and clear differentiation of Moroccan landraces from those from northern Mediterranean regions (Italy, Turkey and Greece) were found. High genetic variation in root and shoot traits and traits related to drought tolerance was also observed. No relationship was found between drought tolerance of landraces and their geographic origin. Landraces with higher dry root biomass, chlorophyll content and root–shoot ratio were drought tolerant as evidenced by higher RWC and lower WLR and wilting severity. Kruskal–Wallis non-parametric test (K-W) was used to find SSRs and AFLPs associated with RWC, WLR and WS. Regression analysis showed six SSR and AFLP alleles explaining the highest phenotypic variation of RWC, WLR and WS (ranging from 21 to 50 % for SSRs and from 14 to 33 % for AFLPs). Functional genetic diversity analysis showed relationships between drought response of landraces and linked SSR and AFLP alleles to RWC, WLR and WS according to K-W test using canonical discriminant analysis. Our results confirm the feasibility of using association mapping to find DNA markers associated with drought tolerance in larger numbers of lentil landraces.

Agroforestry is now accepted as a sustainable way of improving existing cropping systems. As with other agricultural innovations, the adoption of agroforestry practices depends on farmers’ perceptions of the benefits that would arise from the use of these practices. Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill. Pierre ex Pax.) or njansang (in Bassa local language) is a tropical tree, the kernels of which are in high demand in Cameroon as a thickening ingredient. Njansang is suitable for integration in agroforestry systems in the area, but its expansion is constrained by difficulties in kernel extraction, which has been exclusively manual so far. This paper investigates the factors that determine producers’ attitudes towards the introduction and use of a kernel extraction machine. Among the issues investigated were characterization of users, comparison of mechanical and manual extraction, users’ appreciation of the machine and willingness to continue to use the machine. Using a structured questionnaire, 81 njansang producers from three categories were randomly selected from five villages in southern Cameroon. We further investigate how attributes of an innovation influence the adoption of the machine. Results from a principal component analysis and logistic regression suggest that the age and education of producers, annual income from njansang, the number of njansang trees exploited and the purchase price of the machine are important variables in determining its adoption. The use of the machine allows producers to spend less time on njansang kernel extraction, thereby increasing returns in labour and offering opportunities to increase the number of trees a household can exploit.

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) is usually grown under rainfed environments and often encounters drought stress from limited rainfall. Little information is available about shoot and root traits in association with drought tolerance. We studied variability for root and shoot traits related to drought tolerance using an F6–8 population of 133 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) from the cross ILL6002 × ILL5888. We found important variation between genotypes and also high variation in heritability values for root and shoot traits at 38 days after sowing the parents and RILs under both well-watered and drought-stressed treatments during two consecutive seasons in the greenhouse. The higher heritability values were obtained under drought stress treatment and suggest that selection in water-limited environments would be more effective in achieving genetic gains. Drought had reduced trait values, except root–shoot ratio that was likely to be enhanced underlying the importance of this trait for drought tolerance. The quantitative and continuous distributions of variation are the evidence for polygenic control of these traits and the possibility of mapping the quantitative trait loci (QTL). Statistically significant associations between root and shoot traits such as dry shoot biomass and chlorophyll content were noted, highlighting the reliability of indirect selection for underground traits (root) based on these aboveground traits in breeding programs. Significant correlations and regressions were demonstrated between dry root biomass, lateral root number, root surface area, dry shoot biomass, root–shoot ratio, chlorophyll content and drought tolerance as estimated by wilting severity from limited water supply. This shows the importance of a well-developed root system and early biomass development for drought tolerance. Identification and mapping of QTL related to studied traits in this population would be a first step for starting marker-assisted selection.

Cacao (Theobroma cacao) cultivation maintaining a high proportion of shade trees in a diverse composition (agroforestry) is currently being viewed as a sustainable land use practice. Our research hypothesis was that cacao agroforests (AF) can support relatively high tree diversity, as compared to surrounding primary and/or secondary forests. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of forest conversion on tree communities by comparing tree composition, community characteristics (richness and diversity) and spatial structure (density, canopy height, basal area) among primary forest, secondary forest, and cacao AF. In total, we collected data from 30 25 × 25 m plots on three land use systems (20 in cacao AF, five in secondary, and five in primary forests) in San Alejandro, Peruvian Amazon. All trees with DBH ≥ 10 cm were counted, identified to species, and their height and DBH were recorded. Our results support the hypothesis that cacao AF present a relatively high tree species richness and diversity, although they are no substitute for natural habitats. We identified most common species used for shading cacao. Tree species composition similarity was highest between cacao AF and secondary forest. Vegetation structure (density, height, DBH) was significantly lower compared to primary and secondary forest. Species richness and diversity were found to be highest in the primary forest, but cacao AF and secondary forests were fairly comparable. The tree species cultivated in cacao AF are very different from those found in primary forest, so we question whether the relatively high tree diversity and richness is able to support much of the diversity of original flora and fauna.

Agroforestry and planting trees on farmers’ fields have been reported as important elements in a strategy to meet the millennium development goals of poverty reduction and climate change improvement. However, their uptake seems to be constrained by factors both internal and external to the household and related to the policy and legislative environment. This paper examines the impact of these factors on farmers’ decisions to plant trees. Cameroon is used as a case to analyse whether existing policies and legislation governing trees support or discourage tree planting, using qualitative content analyses. Although their mission papers and statements suggest most national government policies in Cameroon address tree planting and agroforestry, actual legislation designed to follow up the policies mostly contradicts the poverty reduction goals. Often legislation and regulations are more conservation-oriented and do not provide a clear procedure to distinguish between products from trees found in the wild and those gathered from farmers’ fields.

The sustainable use of natural and agricultural biodiversity in the diet can be instrumental to preserve existing food biodiversity, address malnutrition, and mitigate adverse effects of dietary changes worldwide. This systematic review of literature summarizes the current evidence on the contribution of plant and animal biodiversity to human diets in terms of energy intake, micronutrient intake, and dietary diversification. Peer-reviewed studies were searched in ten databases using pre-defined search terms. Only original studies assessing food biodiversity and dietary intake were included, resulting in a total of 34 studies. 7, 14, and 17 studies reported information in relation to energy intake, micronutrient intake, and dietary diversification, respectively. In general, locally available foods were found to be important sources of energy, micronutrients, and dietary diversification in the diet of particularly rural and forest communities of highly biodiverse ecosystems. The current evidence shows local food biodiversity as important contributor of nutritious diets. Findings are, however, limited to populations living in highly biodiverse areas. Research on the contribution of biodiversity in diets of industrialized and urban settings needs more attention. Instruments are needed that would more appropriately measure the dietary contribution of local biodiversity.

Wild Edible Plant (WEP) knowledge is very important for the survival of many African communities and may constitute a genetic resource pool for the development of novel food products. Only very limited and general information on WEPs of the Tshopo District, DRCongo, is available in international literature. Ethnobotanical research was carried out in 3 ethnic groups, Turumbu, Mbole and Bali, in 3 different territories of the Tshopo District. In 3 villages per ethnic group, WEPs were inventoried and their properties discussed in focus groups. Via ‘walks-in-the-woods’ with key informants all WEPs were collected to constitute a reference herbarium. Preferences in taste, commercial, nutritional and cultural value, were discussed during participatory ranking exercises. A total of 166 WEPs (165 species and 2 varieties) in 71 families, together with their uses, preparation methods, availability and commercialization possibilities were documented. Comparisons between the 3 ethnic groups showed that the use and knowledge of WEPs is clearly culturally defined with high diversity between ethnic groups. Therefore, we should make a difference between species with regional importance and ethnospecific species when it comes to priority setting for further study and participatory domestication. Based upon the preference ranking exercises, Anonidium mannii, Landolphia owariensis and Megaphrynium macrostachyum are some of the species with regional importance. Participatory domestication aims at ameliorating nutrition security and diversifying and increasing local farmers’ income whilst protecting the tropical rainforest from overexploitation.

In Africa, little is known about how the vascular anatomy of medicinal tree species is influenced by bark harvesting, and the ability of species to react against debarking needs to be better understood. This study aims to evaluate the temporal and spatial impact of bark harvesting on wood anatomy and to determine the extent to which a tree’s ability to close the wound after bark harvesting is affected by anatomical changes in the wood. We harvested bark from ten medicinal tree species located in an Isoberlinia doka woodland in Central Benin. Two years after debarking, the wound closure was measured and one tree per species was cut at the wound level to collect a stem disc. On the cross section of each disc, vessel features (area, density and specific conductive area) were measured in the radial direction (before and after wounding) and on three locations around the disc surface. We found that during early wound healing, all species produced vessels with a smaller area than in unaffected wood and this significantly decreased the specific conductive area in eight of the investigated species. However, after 2 years, only six trees had restored their specific conductive area. In addition, a significant positive correlation (r = 0.64, P < 0.005) confirmed the relationship between the specific conductive area and tissue production to close the wound and delineated the study group into two groups of trees. Therefore, we concluded that vessels appeared to be very good anatomical indicators of the tree’s reactions to debarking.

Amazonian plant management is perhaps nowhere as intense as in homegardens and swiddens. A quantitative ethnobotanical study was conducted in Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Secure, Bolivia, to investigate plant use and management in homegardens and swiddens by local Yuracare and Trinitario ethnic groups. Ethnobotanical data of plants were obtained from 11 Yuracare and 11 Trinitario participants through semistructured interviews. A total of 151 different cultivated or tolerated species was recorded, accounting for 21% of all inventoried plants considered useful to local Yuracares and Trinitarios. The local use value of managed plants is almost twice that of wild plants. Managed plants score particularly higher than wild plants for medicinal, food and material applications. Most managed plants are herbs, followed by trees and shrubs. Nevertheless, managed trees have significantly higher overall use values than all other life forms. Managed trees tend to be particularly more appreciated as sources of food and materials, whereas herbaceous plants generally have a higher therapeutic value. Our results support observations made in literature that moderately humanized landscapes, and homegardens and swiddens in particular, are an important source of food and healing for forest people. Although people generally start managing plants in homegardens and swiddens because of their perceived usefulness, they are also favourable locations to experiment with the usefulness of (managed or wild) plants prevailing there. This particularly accounts for medicinal plants and it is argued that the use of managed plants in traditional medicine relates to (1) the high intensity of contact with theses species, and (2) their chemical defence strategy. To conclude, a number of policy recommendations are presented.

This study was conducted to evaluate the inhibitory potential of P. harmala leaf, stem and root extract on germination and growth of Avena fatua L. and Convolvulus arvensis L., as well as identification of the phytotoxic substances responsible for this activity. According to our results, the degree of toxicity of different P. harmala plant parts can be arranged in the following order: leaves > stems > roots. The two test species differed in their sensitivity to P. harmala extracts. Inhibitory effect on shoot length and seedling dry weight was more pronounced in C. arvensis, whereas higher reduction in germination, root length and total chlorophyll content occurred in A. fatua. A significant amount of water-soluble phenolic acids were found in P. harmala plant extracts. Total phenolic acids content was higher in leaf extracts when compared to that of stem or root extracts. Seven phenolic acids including gallic acid, vanillic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid and ferulic acid were found in P. harmala leaf extracts. On the other hand, we identified four phenolic acids from stem (galllic acid, vanillic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid and caffeic acid) and root (galllic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, syringic acid and cinnamic acid) extracts. The greater number of growth inhibitors detected in the leaves might explain the stronger inhibitory activity. Overall, our results suggest that P. harmala might be used as a natural herbicide for weed control and consequently reduce dependence on synthetic herbicides.

Valuation of Forests and Plant Species in Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Secure, Bolivia. A quantitative ethnobotanical study was conducted in Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Secure (TIPNIS), Bolivia, to assess the usefulness assigned by local Yuracare and Trinitario ethnic groups to different terra firme and floodplain forests. Furthermore, we investigated which variables are good predictors for the use value attributed to plant species in the research area. Plants were collected during transect, walk-in-the-woods and homegarden sampling. Ethnobotanical and ethnoecological data of the inventoried plants were obtained from 12 Yuracare and 14 Trinitario participants through semistructured interviews. On average, 84% of species in transects were claimed to be useful to people. The understorey (2.5 cm ≤ dbh

This paper examines the relationship between plant use and plant diversity in 36 transects of 50 × 2 m2 laid out in the surroundings of Apillapampa, a community of Quechua subsistence farmers in the Bolivian Andes. Use data were obtained through individual interviews with 13 local key participants and were organized in eight plant use categories. Regression slope analysis showed that for nearly all plant use categories the proportion of used species to available species decreased with increasing plant diversity in transects. Two main groups of plant use categories could be distinguished: diversity followers, for which the number of useful plant species in transects keeps abreast with increasing plant diversity (e.g. medicine) and diversity laggards, for which the number of useful plant species increases only moderately with increasing diversity (e.g., food). We hypothesize that the main difference between both groups is related to the human process of plant selection. In categories that are diversity followers, plants are partly selected and used in an immediacy context, whereby emic perception of efficacy may be of secondary importance. By contrast, plant use in categories of diversity laggards is strongly guided by emic perception of efficacy because plant use takes place in a context in which plants are generally not needed on a short notice.

Four Footed Pharmacists: Indications of Self-Medicating Livestock in Karamoja, Uganda.Following observations of goats’ possible self-medication browsing the anti-parasitic plant, Albizia anthelmintica, an ethnobotanical survey was undertaken to examine whether livestock engage in other self-medicating behaviors, and if people also use the same medications. Information was gathered over a five-month period from 147 Karamojong pastoralists and healers using a checklist of questions. There were 124 observations for 50 proposed self-medicating behaviors, primarily eating plants, to treat a total of 35 disease conditions. Of the plant species, 72% were also prepared by informants to treat human or veterinary diseases. Species importance was estimated by four factors: >3 user citations, informant consensus factor >0.4, fidelity level >40% and presence in the local pharmacopoeia. Eight species fulfilled all of these factors, and 12 had at least three. These results provide support for the hypothesis that animals graze specific plants when ill and suggest that people have developed some of their knowledge through animal observation.

This paper presents findings from a study that assessed influence of continuous application of a particular traditional tillage practice on weed species richness, diversity and composition and identifies weed species with positive benefits to the communities in semi-arid areas of Mpwapwa district, central Tanzania. In this area farmers apply three different traditional tillage practices which are no-till (NT), shallow tillage (ST) and Ridging System (RT). A total of 36 farm fields were surveyed in 2006/2007 cropping season where 63 weed species from 26 families were identified. Analysis of variance indicated significant differences between practices (p

Ethnobotanists use a variety of interview techniques to collect ethnobotanical data. Drawing upon the results from a quantitative ethnobotanical study in five Yuracare and Trinitario communities in the Bolivian Amazon, the pros and cons of the following methods are evaluated: (1) interviews in situ during transects, walk-in-the-woods, and homegarden sampling; and (2) interviews ex situ with fresh plant material, voucher specimens, or plant photographs as reference tools. Although the systematic use of plant photographs for ethnobotanical interviews is poorly documented in literature, the results show that indigenous participants in our study recognize significantly more plant species from photographs than from voucher specimens. It is argued that, especially in remote and isolated study sites, photographs might be advantageous over voucher specimens.

Background: To overcome the escalating problems associated with infectious diseases and drug resistance, discovery of new antimicrobials is crucial. The present study aimed to carry out in vitro antimicrobial analysis of 15 medicinal plant species selected according to their traditional medicinal uses in Gurage and Silti Zones, south central Ethiopia. Methods: Ethanol extracts of various plant parts were investigated for their antimicrobial activity against 20 bacterial and one yeast strains. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined by broth microdilution method. Results: Asparagus africanus, Guizotia schimperi, Lippia adoensis var. adoensis and Premna schimperi were active against Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus at a concentration of 512 mu g/ml or lower. Strong antibacterial activity (MIC >= 128 mu g/ml) was observed for G. schimperi extract against 17 resistant and sensitive Staphylococcus strains, at a concentration comparable to standard antibiotics. Moreover, this extract showed higher antibacterial activity for the test against S. aureus ATCC 33591, ATCC 33592, SA3 and SA5 strains (128-256 mu g/ml) than oxacillin (512 mu g/ml). Conclusions: The study revealed in vitro antibacterial activity of plants used in folk medicine in south central Ethiopia. The usefulness of these plants, in particular of G. schimperi, should be confirmed through further phytochemical and toxicity analyses.