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Plantagos are important economical and medicinal plants that possess several bioactive secondary metabolites, such as phenolics, iridoids, triterpenes, and alkaloids. Triterpenoids are the ubiquitous and dynamic secondary metabolites that are deployed by plants for chemical interactions and protection under biotic/abiotic stress. Plantago ovata, a cultivated species, is the source of psyllium, while Plantago major, a wild species, has significant therapeutic potential. Wild species are considered more tolerant to stressful conditions in comparison to their cultivated allies. In view of this, the present study aimed to decipher the terpenoid biosynthetic pathway operative in P. ovata and P. major using a comparative transcriptomics approach. Majority of terpenoid biosynthetic genes were observed as upregulated in P. major including rate limiting genes of MVA (HMGR) and MEP (DXR) pathways and genes (α-AS, BAS, SM, and CYP716) involved in ursolic acid biosynthesis, an important triterpenoid prevalent in Plantago species. The HPLC output further confirmed the higher concentration of ursolic acid in P. major as compared to P. ovata leaf samples, respectively. In addition to terpenoid biosynthesis, KEGG annotation revealed the involvement of differentially expressed unigenes in several metabolic pathways, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, biosynthesis of antibiotics, and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. MYB was found as the most abundant transcription factor family in Plantago transcriptome. We have been able to generate valuable information which can help in improving terpenoid production in Plantago. Additionally, the present study has laid a strong foundation for deciphering other important metabolic pathways in Plantago.

Invasive plant species are a major threat to biodiversity worldwide. Thus, information on their distribution, morphological variation as well as their reaction to ecological parameters are required to adequately evaluate their threat and manage invasions. Plantago major is a cosmopolitan invasive plant species and a possible threat to the local flora in dry grasslands. A multivariate analysis of data acquired from 19 populations of this species across various locations in Iran was used to evaluate the diversity of quantitative and qualitative morphological traits possibly affected by ecological factors to understand its distribution pattern. Morphological traits were variable and depended on the location of observation. Quantitative traits in particular exhibited a higher variation than qualitative traits between populations, with higher diversity in populations from the Central Alborz and Khorasan. Further, populations with higher vegetative growth had relatively lower reproductive fitness, i.e. a trade-off between the number of seeds per individual and vegetative traits. Cluster analysis based on either morphological data or ecological variables were capable to group the populations close to their geographical origins, despite correlation coefficients of ecological variables with morphological traits being mainly non-significant. Our results provide important insights into the variability of P. major and potentially allow inferences on distribution limits in Iran.

The heavy metal concentration in plant tissues of Ranunculus ficaria, Plantago major, Taraxacum officinale, and Achillea millefolium, frequently consumed or used in traditional medicine, collected from one of radioactive area of Romania, not been previously reported by any research group. The content of Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb were determined by ICP-MS. To evaluate the level of pollution, the plants are examined to determine the EDI, HRI and TTHQ values, to reach a judgment about whether their consumption is risky or not in terms of human health. The high amounts of Cd, Mn and Pb, in tissues of Taraxacum officinale and Plantago major, lead to the fact that the ecosystem in which these species are growing should be evaluated by the authorities in terms of environmental pollution. DIM and HRI data showed that A. millefiori and R. ficaria can be safely used by locals, while T. officinale and P. major are thought to pose a risk in terms of heavy metals. Accumulation of metals by both roots and leaves in T. officinale and P. major was proportional to the metal concentration in the tailings dumps, while Cr, Mn, Cd, and Pb content exceeded the maximum permissible daily levels.

This study aimed to investigate the insecticidal activity and toxicity durability of Plantago major seed (PMS) extract loaded nanoliposomes against Tribolium castaneum. The major constituents of PMS extract were determined by GC–MS: benzene dicarboxylic acid (23.49%), dodecane (9.17%), 1-ethynylcyclopentanol (7.36%), heptadecane (6.47%) and cyclohexanol (4.56%). The Characterization of Plantago major seed extract loaded nanoliposomes was investigated by SEM, DLS, ζ-potential, FTIR, and encapsulation efficiency. The mean particle size distribution of PMS nanoliposomes is 50 ± 1.8 nm with PDI 0.41 ± 0.014. The ζ-potential of PMS extract loaded nanoliposomes was equal to − 27.23 ± 5.31 mV. The encapsulation efficiency of nanoliposomes containing PMS extract was 96%. PMS extract loaded nanoliposomes have a spherical shape. FTIR reveals interactions of the PMS extract in nanoliposome structures with phospholipid groups. To determine the insecticidal potential of Plantago major seed extract nanoliposomes were impregnated with concentration (10, 25, 40, 65, 80, and 100 mg/ml). During fumigant testing, the LC50 of the Plantago major seed extract was 39.30 mg/ml against Tribolium castaneum adults after 72 h of exposure time. The requirement decreased to 35.50 mg/ml after the nanoencapsulation of plant extract for 72 h of exposure of time. The mortality percentage of Tribolium castaneum by PMS extract and PMS extract loaded nanoliposomes (V: 100 mg/ml) for 60 days after the production of samples 16.25% and 62.50%., respectively. The release percentage of Plantago major seed extracts loaded nanoliposomes was 54% after 24 h. The conclusions of this study indicate that nano-encapsulated Plantago major seed extracts have good effects on the pest, and can be an effective alternative to synthetic pesticides. Graphic abstract Plantago major seed (PMS) extract loaded nanoliposomes have a good insecticidal effect on Tribolium castaneum.

Background Ethnobotanical studies investigating a large number of traditional herbs and uses have an important role in the discovery of new drugs. Nowadays, some of these traditional herbs are researched directly in the clinical trials. In this study, it is aimed to evaluate the 19 plant species that have been identified in the clinical trials among 300 plant species belonging to 79 families with traditional use for skin problems in Turkey. Main body Natural sources are very important to treat diseases for thousands of years. The ethnopharmacological research of natural products ranges from the collection of biogenic samples such as plants to preclinical and clinical studies with the aim of developing drug templates or new drugs. In the ethnopharmacological approach, it is aimed to reach the result based on the traditional and modern knowledge about natural resources. The biggest advantage of this approach is synthesizing new and old information. After the plant or natural compound is determined, other processes work similarly with conventional drugs. Methods Ethnobotanical papers, thesis and projects in Istanbul University Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Pharmaceutical Botany and databases (PubMed and Google Scholar) have been sought and results were synthesized. Results Most of the clinical uses of herbs have been seen similar to their traditional uses. On the other hand, there are some plants on which their clinical uses differ from the traditional uses such as Borago officinalis, Calendula officinalis or Euphorbia peplus. When the frequency of traditional uses of herbs are compared, Plantago species, Plantago major and Plantago lanceolata are the most used taxa in Turkey, secondly, Hypericum perforatum comes. However, Plantago species are not of much interest in clinical trials. It is seen that most of the plants in the clinical research are tried for wound healing occuring due to different origins such as cancer, surgery and injury. Side effects were observed only during the application of Allium cepa, Cydonia oblonga and H. perforatum. Conclusions When clinical trials are evaluated in terms of efficacy and overall results, significant differences and effective results are seen in treatment groups given herbs in comparison with placebo or control groups.

Pollen grains of ten species of Kickxia (Plantaginaceae, previously assigned to Scrophulariaceae), two species of Scrophularia (Scrophulariaceae) and one species of genus Plantago (Plantaginaceae) in Saudi Arabia were studied using both light and scanning electron microscopy. The most obvious findings in Plantago major are: Pantoporate pollen class (5–9), pollen shape class prolate—spheroidal, a polar, pollen shape—circular, circumaperture, apocolpium—absent, aperture type—annular and pollen wall sculpture—verrucate. This result showed that Plantago major was separated by their pollen morphological characteristics away from the other two studied genera. This result supports some taxonomic views of some scientists in maintaining Plantago species in a separate monogeneric family (Plantaginaceae) and keeping Kickxia and Scrophularia within the Scrophulariaceae family.

Antiarrhythmic activity of the flavonoid fraction of Plantago major L. extract (0.05 mg/mL) was studied. The studied fractions were found to lower the frequency of rat cardiac papillary muscle contractions with aconitine-induced (1 μM) arrythmia in vitro. An analysis of literature and experimental data suggested that the antiarrhythmic effects of the studied flavonoid fractions may have been related to functional modulation of Na+- and Ca2+-channels in cardiomyocytes.

Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) are a new alternative to toxic organic solvents. Their constituents are primary metabolites, non-toxic, biocompatible and sustainable. In this study four selected NADES were applied for the extraction of two medicinal plants: Sideritis scardica, and Plantago major as an alternative to water-alcohol mixtures, and the antimicrobial and genotoxic potential of the extracts were studied. The extraction efficiency was evaluated by measuring the extracted total phenolics, and total flavonoids. Best extraction results for total phenolics for the studied plants were obtained with choline chloride-glucose 5:2 plus 30% water; but surprisingly these extracts were inactive against all tested microorganisms. Extracts with citric acid-1,2-propanediol 1:4 and choline chloride-glycerol 1:2 showed good activity against S. pyogenes, E. coli, S. aureus, and C. albicans. Low genotoxicity and cytotoxicity were observed for all four NADES and the extracts with antimicrobial activity. Our results confirm the potential of NADESs for extraction of bioactive constituents of medicinal plants and further suggest that NADES can improve the effects of bioactive extracts. Further studies are needed to clarify the influence of the studied NADES on the bioactivity of dissolved substances, and the possibility to use such extracts in the pharmaceutical and food industry.

The levels of pollution by heavy metals and arsenic in top soil layers and medicinal plant raw materials in Voronezh Region were studied using Urtica dioica and Plantago major leaves as examples. The analyses were carried out using atomic absorption spectrometry on a graphite-furnace MGA-915MD spectrometer. Samples were collected from districts with different anthropogenic impacts across the whole region. Leaves of P. major characteristically had the highest coefficients of accumulation from the soil for Cd, As, and Ni. Leaves of U. dioica typically had high accumulation coefficients for Ni.

Background Studies have indicated that Plantago major L. (P. major) has therapeutic properties, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal, immunostimulatory, and tissue regeneration. This plant species is assumed to provide potent tissue repair and healing in treatments of skin wound injuries, but the understanding of its effectiveness is still unclear. The systematic review proposed herein aims to assess effectiveness of P. major for wound healing in animal models. Methods We will conduct database searches in BVS, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, CINAHL, and CABDirect. Reviewers will independently evaluate titles, abstracts, and full-text articles retrieved from databases to identify potentially eligible studies. Relevant articles will be assessed for risk of bias and quality. The database searches will include analysis of wound healing rate through macroscopic evaluation, photo images, or calculation of the wound area retraction until the wound closure. Relevant data will be compiled for the capability and effectiveness of P. major treatments in accelerating wound healing. Random effects meta-analysis models will be employed to compare among groups based on outcome variables from studies reporting sufficient high-quality data. Discussion Results of this systematic review will be presented in a narrative synthesis form. They will provide a summary and clear understanding of the relevant current questions and evidences directly related to P. major effective tissue repair and healing. Outcomes of this systematic review will contribute with important information that could benefit future research efforts and potential applicability in humans. Systematic review registration PROSPERO CRD42019121962

Surfactant-enhanced phytoremediation is an eco-friendly treatment for reducing soil contamination. Cypermethrin (CYP) is one of the most widely used pyrethroid insecticides against different pests, and its use causes soil contamination. The aim of this study was to investigate the removal of CYP from contaminated soil by Plantago major (PM) and some surfactants. For the first time, we documented the uptake and translocation of CYP from the soil and used some strategies to improve the effectiveness of this technology, which involved the use of various surfactants to solubilize the contaminant. In a pot experiment, four surfactants [liquid silicon dioxide (SiO2, 750 mg L−1), 2-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HPsCD, 1%), humic acid (HA, 10 mg L−1) and Tween 80 (Tw80, 9.2 mg L−1)] were used to facilitate the phytoremediation of CYP (10 µg g−1)-contaminated soil by PM. Our data showed that amending the soil with PM plus SiO2 significantly reduced the amount of CYP in the soil and highly increased the concentrations of CYP in the plant roots and leaves. The longest half-life value (t1/2) of CYP was in the sterilized soil treatment (24.8 days), and the shortest was in the soil with PM amended with SiO2 (6.41 days). The half-life value (t1/2) of CYP in soil with PM alone was 10.0 days. Through in vitro experiments, a batch equilibrium technique showed that hydroxypropyl-s-cyclodextrin (HPsCD) is the best surfactant to most efficiently eliminate CYP from the soil. However, in the greenhouse experiment, the addition of SiO2 to soil cultivated with PM was more effective than the use of other solubility-enhancing surfactants in the removal of significant amounts of CYP (p > 0.05) from the contaminated soil. The integration of SiO2 + PM is the best treatment and is recommended for minimizing plant contaminant contents in CYP-contaminated soil.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) formed between plants and AM fungi (AMF) can alter host plant quality and thus influence plant-herbivore interactions. While AM is known to affect the development of generalist chewing-biting herbivores, AM-mediated impacts on insect behavior have been neglected until now. In this study, the effects of Rhizophagus irregularis, a generalist AMF, on phenotypic and leaf metabolic traits of Plantago major plants were investigated. Further, the influence of AM-mediated host plant modifications on the development and on seven behavioral traits of larvae of the generalist Mamestra brassicae were recorded. Tests were carried out in the third (L3) and fourth (L4) larval instar, respectively. While shoot water content, specific leaf area, and foliar concentrations of the secondary metabolite aucubin were higher in AM-treated compared to non-mycorrhized (NM) plants, lower concentrations of the primary metabolites citric acid and isocitric acid were found in leaves of AM plants. Larvae reared on AM plants gained a higher body mass and tended to develop faster than individuals reared on NM plants. However, plant treatment had no significant effect on any of the behavioral traits. Instead, differences between larvae of different ages were detected in several behavioral features, with L4 being less active and less bold than L3 larvae. The results demonstrate that AM-induced modifications of host plant quality influence larval development, whereas the behavioral phenotype seems to be more fixed at least under the tested conditions.

The relationship between the contents of heavy metals and principal groups of biologically active substances in plant raw material was traced using Polygonum aviculare L. and Plantago major L. collected in ecologically different regions of Voronezh Oblast as examples. Close negative correlations were found between flavonoids of P. aviculare and copper, cadmium, and zinc and between water-soluble polysaccharides from P. major leaves and chromium, nickel, and arsenic. The results were relevant to research on plant pharmacognosy and physiology.

Four representative species of different growth forms viz., rhizomatous forbs (Rumex nepalensis Spreng.), mat-forming forbs (Plantago major Linn.), stoloniferous forbs (Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth.) and prostrate creeping dwarf shrubs (Skimmia laureola Hook. f.) were exposed to CO2 to assess its effect on their growth, morphology and dry matter partitioning in situ Indian alpine. Elevated CO2 significantly stimulated the growth, morphology and biomass allocation of three growth forms (rhizomatous forbs, stoloniferous forbs and prostrate creeping dwarf shrubs) through increased plant height, leaf number and area whereas, in mat-forming forbs all above parameters except plant height, decreased. Shoot–root length, diameter and leaf thickness showed similar increase in three growth forms, except in mat-forming forbs, where only shoot length increased. Elevated CO2 enhanced more dry matter partitioning towards the sink. The study concludes that all the plant species adapted to alpine environment may not respond positively to rising atmospheric CO2 in future due to variable adaptive capacity and metabolic adjustments to changing climate.

Chlorpyrifos is a common organophosphorus insecticide used for crop protection. Chlorpyrifos use has induced heath issues and water pollution. Such issues may be solved by phytoremediation, which is the use of plants for the cleanup of pollutants. Here, we tested Plantago major L. to clean water and soils under laboratory conditions. Results show that the concentration of chlorpyrifos residues after 5 days exposure reached 36.86 μg/g in roots and 13.93 μg/g in upper plant tissues. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of chlorpyrifos metabolites suggests the formation of 3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCP) and diethyl 3,5,6-trichloropyridin-2-yl phosphate (chlorpyrifos-oxon). Chlorpyrifos-oxon was detected in the roots and the leaves after 2 h of testing. After 24 h of testing, the degradation product chlorpyrifos-oxon increased in the roots and the leaves then decreased gradually until the end of testing. TCP levels increased gradually to 192 h then decreased until the end of testing.

The complete genomes of tobamovirus isolates from Plantago major L. from New Zealand (NZ-439), Plantago sp. from Germany (Kons 1105), Actinidia chinensis (Actinidia-AC) and A. deliciosa (Actinidia-AD) from China were sequenced and compared to previously published tobamovirus genomes. Their genome organization and phylogenetic analysis of the putative replicase component, replicase readthrough component, movement protein, coat protein and complete genome placed all four isolates in subgroup 3 of the tobamoviruses. The complete genomes differed from each other by

Eight compounds were isolated from methanol extract of Plantago major L. leaves and investigated for their ability to inhibit angiotensin I-converting enzyme activity. Among them, compound 1 showed the most potent inhibition with rate of 28.06 ± 0.21% at a concentration of 100 μM. Compounds 2 and 8 exhibited weak activities. These results suggest that compound 1 might contribute to the ability of P. major to inhibit the activity of angiotensin I- converting enzyme.

Foi realizada uma revisão bibliográfica sobre plantas medicinais indicadas para afecções odontológicas, incluindo livros, artigos e sites científicos e populares. Os dados foram compilados em uma tabela contendo informações como nome científico, popular, família, parte utilizada e forma farmacêutica. Foram encontradas 132 espécies, distribuídas em 52 Famílias Botânicas citadas como úteis no tratamento de afecções odontológicas. As espécies mais citadas de acordo com a bibliografia consultada foram Punica granatum L. (10 citações), Althaea officinalis L.(8), Salvia officinalis L. (8), Calendula officinalis L.(8), Malva sylvestris L (7), Plantago major L. (6). O conjunto destes resultados deve permitir um perfil de espécies para uso em odontologia e contribuir para o direcionamento de pesquisas nesta área, culminando com o desenvolvimento de fitoterápicos de qualidade e validados para uso odontológico, bem como permitindo a divulgação destes estudos para a população e profissionais afins. A bibliographical review on medicinal plants indicated for odontological disease was carried through, including books, articles and scientific and popular sites. The data had been compiled in a Table with information such as plants scientific and popular names, family, used part and pharmaceutical form. A total of 132 species, distributed in 52 Botanical Families useful in the treatment of odontological afeccion had been found. The most cited species in the bibliography consulted were Punica granatum L. (10 citations), Althaea officinalis L.(8), Salvia officinalis L. (8), Calendula officinalis L.(8), Malva sylvestris L (7), Plantago major L. (6). The set of these results must allow a profile of species for use in odontology and contribute for the aiming of research in this area, culminating with the development of herbal medicines of quality and validated for odontological use, as well as allowing to the spreading of these studies for the population and similar professionals.

This study investigated the phytoremediation potential of Plantago major L. to remediate lead (Pb) contaminated water and soil. Results of this investigation indicated that P. major L. roots exhibit a significant increase in Pb uptake relative to P. major leaves from polluted water and soil. In polluted water (40 mg/L Pb), P. major showed unusually high concentrations of Pb in their roots (9284.66 mg/kg) within 25 days as the rhizofiltration suggesting that an exclusion strategy for metal tolerance exist widely in him. In soil, P. major has the potential for phytostabilization. In Pb-contaminated soil at 20 mg/kg, P. major roots efficiently accumulated Pb (50.53 mg/kg and 77.12 mg/kg) after 10 and 20 days, respectively. Pb was taken up by P. major leaves to a lesser extent than the roots (13.87 mg/kg and 30.4 mg/kg) after 10 and 20 days, respectively. The results suggest that P. major may be considered a bioaccumulator species for Pb and can be used as a bioindicator of pollution with lead.

Although Plantago major and Plantago asiatica have similar life-history characteristics, P. major populations expand much more rapidly than P. asiatica in habitats where both species occur. One potential factor contributing to this disparity is the production of phytotoxic compounds. However, the phytotoxic characteristics of P. major and P. asiatica have not yet reported. Therefore, we conducted an investigation of possible phytotoxic compounds with allelopathic activity in both species. Aqueous methanol extracts of both plant species inhibited root and hypocotyl growth of garden cress (Lepidium sativum) in a concentration dependent manner. However, the inhibitory effect of P. major was greater than that of P. asiatica. The extracts were further purified by several chromatographic runs and two main phytotoxic compounds were isolated and identified through spectral analysis as (−)-3-hydroxy-β-ionone and blumenol A. (−)-3-Hydroxy-β-ionone and blumenol A inhibited the growth and germination of garden cress at concentrations greater than 1 and 30 μM, respectively. The level of (−)-3-hydroxy-β-ionone in P. major was 7.2-fold greater than that in P. asiatica, while the level of blumenol A was equal in both plant species. Although these Plantago species produce two main phytotoxic compounds with allelopathic activity, the higher level of (−)-3-hydroxy-β-ionone in P. major may result in it contributing the primary inhibitory effects of the extract of P. major. (−)-3-hydroxy-β-ionone may also serve to distinguish the invasive habit of two species and may be involved in the expansion in habitats of P. major.

Plantago is the most important genus of Plantaginaceae family and is used in traditional medicine around the world for different purposes. Plantago coronopus L., Plantago major L., Plantago media L. and Plantago lanceolata L. are most commonly used species of Plantago in traditional medicine in Turkey. The main goal of this study was to investigate the eventual anti-mitotic and anti-genotoxic effects of P. lanceolata L. leaf aqueous extracts (15 g/L and 30 g/L) on Allium cepa L. root tip meristem cells which were treated with 0.7% hydrogen peroxide. For this purpose, two different experiments were performed under the same conditions. In the first experiment, Allium cepa onion bulbs were treated with 0.7% H2O2 for 1 h. After the H2O2 treatment, the onion bulbs were treated with two different concentrations (15 g/L and 30 g/L) of P. lanceolata extracts for 24 h. In the second experiment, A. cepa onion bulbs were treated with two different extract concentrations (15 g/L and 30 g/L) for 24 h and then with 0.7% H2O2 for 1 h. The test concentrations were determined according to doses which are recommended in alternative medicinal usage by people. As positive and negative control 0.7% H2O2 and tap water was used, respectively. As a result, it was determined that aqueous extracts reduced mitotic index and chromosome aberrations in treatment groups in comparison with controls. These results showed that P. lanceolata aqueous extracts have anti-mitotic and anti-genotoxic effects.

A method for determining with a relative uncertainty of less than 3% the total content of polysaccharides in Plantago major leaves that were converted to galacturonic acid was developed using the Dreywood method. The polysaccharide content in Plantago major leaves determined by the developed method was 1.44-1.52%.

The results of the study have shown that the stocks of 90Sr and 137Cs in the frontal part of the EURT are 6700–15000 and 200–400 kBq/m2, respectively. The coefficients of their accumulation in different herbaceous plant species in this impact zone are lower than in other areas. The accumulative capability of plants has probably decreased in the course of selection as an adaptation to the effect of radiation. The viability and growth parameters of Plantago major L. seeds from the EURT zone are similar to those of seeds from the background sample. Cenopopulations chronically exposed to radiation are characterized by a higher mutation rate in the progeny and an unstable response to additional acute irradiation in most characters studied. A high level of inbreeding is observed in all P. major cenopopulations of plantain. The cenopopulation of the impact zone is characterized by a lower variation of allozyme loci, which may be a result of stringent selection for individuals better adapted to the complex of conditions existing in its habitat.

Effects of an increased lead (Pb) content in soil on growth, photosynthesis (P N) and anatomical parameters of Plantago major L. plants grown under controlled conditions were studied. The total dry weights of plants at 500 and 2000 mg kg−1 Pb in soil were correspondingly 70% and 54% of those of control plants. A reduced leaf area and changed leaf structure caused a decrease in P N in the whole plant. The specific leaf weight (SLW) increased as compared with that of control plants. An increasing Pb content in soil caused a larger number of chloroplasts and larger sizes of protoplasts, a decrease in the chlorophyll a+b contents and a larger number of stomata per unit leaf area based both in adaxial and abaxial epidermis, as compared with control plants. However their conductance was from 40% to 50% lower than that in control plants. It was noted that the dimensions of conducting bundles decreased mainly because of the reduced xylem area. The lower functional activity and the changes at different structural levels of the photosynthetic apparatus caused a decrease in the growth rate of plants at a high Pb content in soil.

Changes in net photosynthetic rate (PN), stomatal conductance (gs), intercellular CO2 concentrations (Ci), transpiration rate (E) and water use efficiency (WUE) were measured in Plantago major L. plants grown under sufficient soil water supply or under soil water stress conditions. The plants had high PN in a wide range of soil water potential and temperature regimes. Soil water had little effect on PN under ambient CO2 concentrations, which was explained by a high carboxylation rate, but increased the dark respiration rate. Carboxylation activity at low Ci depended on RuBP regeneration, whereas at high Ci it depended on the phosphate regeneration rate. The gs and E values were low in plants under stress as compared to the controls that resulted in an increase of WUE. The results obtained show that Plantago major plants have different ways of adaptation to soil water deficit conditions.

Plantago major plants from several Scottish and Dutch locations were surveyed for their genetic variation using PCR markers, namely RAPD analysis, anchored inter-SSR PCR, and chloroplast PCR followed by RFLP analysis. The RAPD and inter-SSR markers showed a differentiation between the two subspecies of P. major. These results are discussed in relation to earlier results using allozyme electrophoresis, DNA fingerprinting, and chloroplast RFLP analysis.

It was found that some of the medicinal plants accumulate increased amounts of toxic elements like Cd or Pb. Less is known about the accumulation of other hazardous elements like arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb) in these species. The present paper investigated selected medicinal plants naturally growing on old mining sites in Slovakia, Central Europe, contaminated by As and Sb. Both these elements are nonessential for plants and, in higher level, might be phytotoxic. The soil concentration of As and Sb at three different localities extensively used for mining of Sb ores in former times highly exceed values characteristic for noncontaminated substrates and ranged between 146 and 540 mg kg−1 for As and 525 and 4,463 mg kg−1 for Sb. Extraction experiments of soils show differences between As and Sb leaching, as the highest amount of mobile As was released in acetic acid while Sb was predominantly released in distilled water. In total, seven different plant species were investigated (Fragaria vesca, Taraxacum officinale, Tussilago farfara, Plantago major, Veronica officinalis, Plantago media, and Primula elatior), and the concentration of investigated elements in shoot ranged between 1 and 519 mg kg−1 for As and 10 and 920 mg kg−1 for Sb. Differences in the bioaccumulation of As and Sb as well as in the translocation of these elements from root to shoot within the same species growing on different localities have been found. This indicate that efficiency of As and Sb uptake might vary between individual plants of the same species on different sites. Increased bioaccumulation of As and Sb in biomass of investigated plants might be dangerous for human when used for traditional medicinal purposes.

Background Traditional remedies are an integral part of Colombian culture. Here we present the results of a three-year study of ethnopharmacology and folk-medicine use among the population of the Atlantic Coast of Colombia, specifically in department of Bolívar. We collected information related to different herbal medicinal uses of the local flora in the treatment of the most common human diseases and health disorders in the area, and determined the relative importance of the species surveyed. Methods Data on the use of medicinal plants were collected using structured interviews and through observations and conversations with local communities. A total of 1225 participants were interviewed. Results Approximately 30 uses were reported for plants in traditional medicine. The plant species with the highest fidelity level (Fl) were Crescentia cujete L. (flu), Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (flu and cough), Euphorbia tithymaloides L. (inflammation), Gliricidia_sepium_(Jacq.) Kunth (pruritic ailments), Heliotropium indicum L. (intestinal parasites) Malachra alceifolia Jacq. (inflammation), Matricaria chamomilla L. (colic) Mentha sativa L. (nervousness), Momordica charantia L. (intestinal parasites), Origanum vulgare L. (earache), Plantago major L. (inflammation) and Terminalia catappa L. (inflammation). The most frequent ailments reported were skin affections, inflammation of the respiratory tract, and gastro-intestinal disorders. The majority of the remedies were prepared from freshly collected plant material from the wild and from a single species only. The preparation of remedies included boiling infusions, extraction of fresh or dry whole plants, leaves, flowers, roots, fruits, and seeds. The parts of the plants most frequently used were the leaves. In this study were identified 39 plant species, which belong to 26 families. There was a high degree of consensus from informants on the medical indications of the different species. Conclusions This study presents new research efforts and perspectives on the search for new drugs based on local uses of medicinal plants. It also sheds light on the dependence of rural communities in Colombia on medicinal plants.

The response of Plantago major ssp. pleiosperma plants, grown on nutrient solution in a climate chamber, to a doubling of the ambient atmospheric CO2 concentration was investigated. Total dry matter production was increased by 30 % after 3 weeks of exposure, due to a transient stimulation of the relative growth rate (RGR) during the first 10 days. Thereafter RGR returned to the level of control plants. Photosynthesis, expressed per unit leaf area, was stimulated during the first two weeks of the experiment, thereafter it dropped and nearly reached the level of the control plants. Root respiration was not affected by increased atmospheric CO2 levels, whereas shoot, dark respiration was stimulated throughout the experimental period. Dry matter allocation over leaves stems and roots was not affected by the CO2 level. SLA was reduced by 10%, which can partly be explained by an increased dry matter content of the leaves. Both in the early and later stages of the experiment, shoot respiration accounted for a larger part of the carbon budget in plants grown at elevated atmospheric CO2. Shifts in the total carbon budget were mainly due to the effects on shoot respiration. Leaf growth accounted for nearly 50 % of the C budget at all stages of the experiment and in both treatments.

The investigations were performed on female mice of the strain C3H Strong. Only the breeders were used in the experiments. A number of mice were given intracellular fluid of way-bread in subcutaneous injections. The controls received no treatment. The age at which mammary cancer appeared was noted and also how often the tumors occurred. The frequency of tumor formation was 93.3% in the controls and 18.2% in the treated mice. The difference is significant.

An attempt was made to relate variation in life-history characteristics within a population of Plantago major ssp. pleiosperma to small-scale environmental variability. At a beach plain, embanked in 1966, a mosaic environment was distinguished with spatial variability in vegetation structure as well as in nutrient availability and water content of the soil. Differences between three subsites in contemporary selection were demonstrated, e.g. in shoot morphology and allocation to reproductive tissue. The effects of nutrient supply and waterlogging on morphology and life history were studied on lines from the three subsites in a greenhouse. For most of the traits high levels of phenotypic plasticity were observed, covering almost entirely the observed phenotypic variability at the beach plain. In all treatments lines from the shrubs had, however, a higher leaf-area ratio as well as delayed flowering when compared to lines from more open subsites. In addition, in a reciprocal transplant experiment it was demonstrated that lines from the shrubs had larger shoots with e.g. broader leaves in the shady environment of the shrubs than other lines. From the experiments no indications were obtained that lines from any subsite were especially adapted to specific levels of nutrient supply or water content of the soil. With respect to these environmental factors P. major ssp. pleisoperma might occur and reproduce at all subsites by means of phenotypic plasticity, e.g. in plant form. However, it is suggested that spatial variability in vegetation structure caused a population subdivision in allocation patterns, leaf form and life history at the beach plain, over distances of about 15-25 m. This differentation occurred during primary succession over a period of twenty years.

Peronospora alta is recorded for the first time causing downy mildew on Plantago major (Plantaginaceae) in Brazil.

Genetic variation in leaf and inflorescence morphology and in generative development within the species Plantago major has been analysed by means of crosses between members of two different subspecies. The variable characters chosen are supposed to be important for determining the ecological differences between the subspecies and other ecotypes. The analyses of F2's indicated that a substantial number of loci controlling the above mentioned characters are situated near the Pgm-1 locus, forming a gene complex. This gene complex can exist in at least three different forms in ssp. pleiosperma, ssp. major lawn type and ssp. major roadside type, respectively. In addition, some important factors for ecotypic differentiation are situated in the neighbourhood of the Got-1 locus and in a linkage group containing three other allozyme loci. These linkages between allozyme loci and fitness-affecting loci can explain the restriction of some enzyme alleles to a particular subspecies.

1. Pectic acid contains galacturonic acid (78–83%) and, chemically linked with it, the monosaccharides D-galactose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, and substance (VIII) and (IX). 2. By fractionating the polysaccharide complex of the leavesof Plantago major L. on a DEAE-cellulose column it has been shown that it consists of pectic acid (80–82%), and free galactoraban (5–6%) and galactan (4–5%).

Experiments were performed on 50 rabbits. A possibility was established of preventing the experimental hypercholesteremia by the introduction of Plantago major leaves into the diet of experimental animals. Control group of rabbits received cholesterol alone. The content of blood cholesterol ranged in them from 350 to 785 mg percent. Lipoidosis of aorta was marked in the majority of the cases. In the experimental groups rabbits were given leaves of extract of Plantago major in addition to cholesterol. An inhibition in the development of hypercholesteremia and atherosclerosis was noted (see Table 1). By the third month of experiment blood cholesterol content in the majority of the experimental animals dropped to the initial level.

THE symptoms of green petal disease1 of strawberries in Britain resemble those caused by the aster yellows virus2 in strawberries in California. In several localities where the disease occurs in Kent, symptoms of the aster yellows type were also found in red and white clover (Trifolium pratense L. and T. repens L.), plantain (Plantago major L.) and mayweed (Anthemis cotula L.).

STUDIES of the effect of growth substances upon plants began at Jealott's Hill Research Station in 1936. The earliest work dealt with the stimulation of the rooting of cuttings and it was extended to discover the effect of ranges of concentrations of β-indolylaeetic acid and α-naphthylacetic acid upon seed germination, upon seedling growth and upon the growth of established plants of many species. The results of these experiments have already been reported1,2, and in them it was observed that the higher concentrations of growth substance depressed growth. This observation, together with our knowledge of the variation of the extent of rooting and deformative effects produced in the different species, led us to expect that these growth substances in higher concentrations would show a selective phytocidal action. We found in August 1940 that applications at the rate of 25 lb. of α-naphthylaeetic acid per acre to oats (Avena sativa L.) weedy with yellow charlock (Brassica Sinapis Visiani) killed the charlock. The oats only received a slight setback and recovered fully. The application was made just after seed-sowing time. 84 per cent of the charlock failed to germinate, and those seedlings which did emerge afterwards died. Several experiments in soil and sand and upon filter paper in the laboratory confirmed these results and indicated that wheat, barley and rye behaved similarly to oats, while greater plaintain (Plantago major L.) and yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) were like yellow charlock in their responses.