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The factors leading to reintroduction success are rarely determined in species translocation programmes attempting to prevent extirpations. Examining interactions between translocated fish and ecological aspects will provide information to increase success of future reintroduction efforts. The zooplankton are a key food source for small-bodied fishes; therefore, the examination of prey availability may contribute useful insight. Fish that are ecological specialists may have preference for invertebrates associated with specific habitat conditions. Food availability for ecological specialists also may be influenced by the presence of alien fishes, through competition for prey and habitat exclusion, including invasive Eastern Gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki) which is linked to the decline of numerous small-bodied fishes. The Murray–Darling Basin in south-eastern Australia is a highly regulated floodplain system where native fishes have declined over recent decades, especially ecological specialists adapted to ephemeral wetlands with natural flow regimes. Yarra Pygmy Perch (Nannoperca obscura) is an ecological specialist that was extirpated in 2008 during a prolonged drought. The objective of this study is to examine dietary aspects of reintroduced Yarra Pygmy Perch as related to zooplankton prey availability and the potential for competition with Eastern Gambusia. The study demonstrated that prey was being consumed by Yarra Pygmy Perch within 24 h of release and provides evidence of overlap in diet with cohabiting Eastern Gambusia. The findings provide direction for further study and a new understanding regarding reintroduction ecology of threatened small-bodied wetland fishes to aid species recovery and persistence.

Despite increased use of species translocations, controversy remains regarding the efficacy and efficiency of the strategy in obtaining conservation goals. Much of this controversy results from vague program objectives, unclear definitions of success, and lack of follow-up monitoring. We used the translocation program initiated by Zoo Knoxville for the federally threatened Bog Turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii) as a case study to demonstrate how genomic assessments not only assess the success of program objectives, but also allow managers to quickly obtain baseline data from which program objectives and explicit definitions of ‘success’ can be determined. Here we used 7030 SNP markers derived from RADseq data to confirm the premise that different source populations are genetically differentiated. Then we tested whether the release population has enhanced genetic diversity, as expected from a deliberate admixture. Although the release population had greater diversity than any source population, variation was lower than expected from modeling admixture with equal source contribution. Our results support the premise that genetic diversity can be maximized by including representatives from as many natural populations as possible. But failure to achieve the expected level of diversity could result from nonrandom success of founders from different sources or unrecorded bias in the implementation of the release program. Many existing and future translocation programs would benefit from genetic assessment similar to that conducted here with Bog Turtles.

Background How animals respond to predators can have consequences when they are reintroduced into the wild or translocated to new habitats. Animals raised in captivity often lack adequate experience with predators, and wild animals can be ill-equipped to respond to invasive predators. When these animals are released or translocated for conservation purposes, their naivety can jeopardize their survival and the outcome of the conservation intervention. Anti-predator training, i.e. the purposeful exposure of animals to predators or predatory-like cues for promoting predatory learning and awareness, is often suggested to be a useful tool in combating prey naivety. However, the prevalence of such training and the evidence for its effectiveness in conservation settings are currently unknown. We detail a set of protocols aimed at resolving both of these unknowns. Methods We will aim to gather studies from multiple databases and grey literature sources which document the occurrence of anti-predator training. We will search beyond the conservation management literature to also cover interventions aimed at promoting anti-predator behaviour in commercial contexts and other academic fields (e.g. animal cognition, behavioral ecology). Studies will be screened in two phases. The first stage of screening will collect studies that conduct anti-predator training. Metadata from this stage will help highlight biases in the use of anti-predator training across geographic locations, funding contexts and taxonomic groups. We will then further screen for research that measures training efficacy either by using learning assessments, designating experimental groups, or by collecting post-release survival data. A narrative synthesis at this stage will describe the relative proportion of studies that measure the efficacy of their training. The smaller research pool will then be systematically reviewed to assess the efficacy of anti-predator training. We will attempt to extract data from all studies which assess efficacy, judging study validity and conducting a meta-analysis if sufficient evidence is found. By creating two stages to our screening and review of evidence, we will be able to better judge the biases and reliability of the efficacy evidence we find.

Decision-analytic models provide forecasts of how systems of interest will respond to management. These models can be parameterized using empirical data, but sometimes require information elicited from experts. When evaluating the effects of disease in species translocation programs, expert judgment is likely to play a role because complete empirical information will rarely be available. We illustrate development of a decision-analytic model built to inform decision-making regarding translocations and other management actions for the boreal toad (Anaxyrus boreas boreas), a species with declines linked to chytridiomycosis caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Using the model, we explored the management implications of major uncertainties in this system, including whether there is a genetic basis for resistance to pathogenic infection by Bd, how translocation can best be implemented, and the effectiveness of efforts to reduce the spread of Bd. Our modeling exercise suggested that while selection for resistance to pathogenic infection by Bd could increase numbers of sites occupied by toads, and translocations could increase the rate of toad recovery, efforts to reduce the spread of Bd may have little effect. We emphasize the need to continue developing and parameterizing models necessary to assess management actions for combating chytridiomycosis-associated declines.

Human disturbance and climate change have increased the risk of extinction for rare and endangered wild plant species. One effective way to conserve these rare and endangered species is through reintroduction. In this review, we summarize the advances in wild plant reintroduction from five perspectives: the establishment of reintroduction biology as an important tool for biodiversity conservation; the importance of genetic diversity in reintroduction; reintroduction under global climate change; recruitment limitation in reintroduction; and reintroduction and ecological restoration. In addition, we consider the future of plant reintroduction strategies.

The recent decline in pollinator biodiversity, notably in the case of wild bee populations, puts both wild and agricultural ecosystems at risk of ecological community collapse. This has triggered calls for further study of these mutualistic communities in order to more effectively inform restoration of disturbed plant–pollinator communities. Here, we use a dynamic network model to test a variety of translocation strategies for restoring a community after it experiences the loss of some of its species. We consider the reintroduction of extirpated species, both immediately after the original loss and after the community has reequilibrated, as well as the introduction of other native species that were originally absent from the community. We find that reintroducing multiple highly interacting generalist species best restores species richness for lightly disturbed communities. However, for communities that experience significant losses in biodiversity, introducing generalist species that are not originally present in the community may most effectively restore species richness, although in these cases the resultant community often shares few species with the original community. We also demonstrate that the translocation of a single species has a minimal impact on both species richness and the frequency of community collapse. These results have important implications for restoration practices in the face of varying degrees of community perturbations, the refinement of which is crucial for community management.

Lichen translocation techniques that may be of value in the salvage of endangered lichen species, or in the latter stages of habitat restoration, are reviewed. Successful translocation is defined here as the transfer of a target organism from a donor site to a receptor site to establish a new self-maintaining colony; for lichens, this may or may not include co-transfer of the thallus-supporting substrate. In a time of global environmental change many species are under threat and the need for effective translocation methods is clear. Indeed, some lichens are already amenable to translocation from one substrate to another. Global conservation requires the restoration of degraded ecosystems and translocation technology offers a tool for habitat replenishment. The re-introduction of lichenised fungi into sites from which they have been lost is an integral part of the restoration of complex habitats. Successful translocation creates in turn niches for other organisms which inhabit, or feed upon, them.

We discuss the controversial issue of species translocation for conservation, i.e. the intentional moving of a species to a non-native area when the species is threatened by extinction in its native area. Based on an argument inspired by utilitarianism: “a conservation method is good when the number of global extinctions it prevents exceeds the number of global extinctions it causes”, we identify and briefly discuss the answer to two critical research questions, and conclude that translocation has the potential to reduce net decline in global species diversity and therefore should be accepted more widely as a tool for conservation.

Seventy-three of the 280 species of Galliformes are at risk of extinction, and all of them are threatened by human factors (mainly hunting and deforestation). Reintroduction is increasingly proposed as a conservation measure, although there is limited post-release monitoring to determine success. The science of reintroduction biology is still in its infancy in Brazil, mainly because most of the projects involving release of animals seldom include post-release monitoring, data collected are not published, and release areas are frequently chosen without any criteria. The Red-billed Curassow Crax blumenbachii reintroduction program in Brazil can be considered a good model for developing future Brazilian reintroduction projects. Systematic radio-tracking of released Red-billed Curassows has allowed detailed information on the ecology and behavior of the species. The information obtained through post-release monitoring will guide future management of the species, and it is a good example of the use of reintroduction as a conservation tool for threatened Galliformes.

Plant reintroductions include labor-intensive, costly, and time-consuming work and often cannot guarantee a successful outcome. In order to maximize the chances of success, it is therefore of utmost importance to appropriately select target species, release site, cultivation and reintroduction methodology, and management technique of the out-planting site. Case studies, best practice and experiences of plant reintroductions are however not sufficiently disseminated to the plant conservation community, most often remaining in unpublished internal reports to which access is difficult. We suggest that this is a major problem for conservationists and it requires the establishment of a framework for rapid and effective broadcasting of information on plant reintroduction programs. We propose a set of variables for a centralized web-based interface which could provide the necessary information in a standardized and accessible form.

In economically developed countries it is projected that by around 2015 over 50% of a person’s lifetime will become available for leisure. Demand for leisure needs, already strong, will continue to increase. One segment of the market, outdoor nature-based recreation (including tourism), is growing strongly worldwide. A substantial proportion of these activities are water-based. The associated demand for recreational vessels has increased rapidly in recent years and is projected to continue to trend upwards. Australian trends mirror those internationally. Using Australia as a case study, we review the direct physical, chemical and biotic impacts associated with recreational boating in coastal water environments. Major physical impacts include disturbance due to movement of craft in shallow waters (e.g., turbulence) and the effects of anchoring/drag, noise/interference/collision that impacts on wildlife. The most critical chemical impacts result from pollution due to fuels and oils, defouling treatments (even those not legislated in-country), and human waste (e.g., sewage effluent). Important biotic impacts are the potential continued introduction and secondary spread of non-native species. We conclude that while greater research effort will provide more environmentally benign products, with the increasing popularity of recreation vessels, it will be beyond the resources of Australian governments to police legislation effectively. However, based on Australian’s demonstrated engagement with government in terrestrial environmental management, with their deliberate engagement with the boating fraternity, the impacts of recreational boating would be lessened.

The aim of this article is to discuss the various ways in which norms enter into discussions of biodiversity and its conservation. It will treat both conservation policy and the science behind biodiversity.

Some conservation organizations publish magazines that showcase current conservation and research projects, attract new subscribers and maintain membership, often using flagship species to promote these objectives. This study investigates the nature of flagship species featured on the covers of ten representative US conservation and nature magazines, Defenders, National Wildlife, Wildlife Conservation, Zoonooz, Nature Conservancy, Outdoor America, Sierra, Audubon, California Wild and Natural History. Operationally defining flagship species by diet, taxonomic order, body size and IUCN status, we found that magazines tend to use mammal and bird species rather than invertebrate, fish, amphibian, reptile or plant taxa on their covers. Featured birds were mostly omnivorous or piscivorous, large-bodied and of little conservation concern; featured mammals were mainly carnivorous or herbivorous, large-bodied and of considerable conservation concern. These analyses confirm, for the first time, anecdotal observations about conservation organizations focusing their publicity and programmes on large, charismatic species to raise awareness and funds and raise the spectre that the public may be exposed to only a selected sample of conservation problems.

This work assesses current geographic prospects for large-scale conservation of Africa’s mammals on the basis of statistics on wildlife habitat, elephant numbers, political stability and potential for environmental tourism and concludes that these prospects depend on events in a small number of eastern and southern African (core) countries, geographically grouped into a ‘safari-belt’ between South-Africa and Kenya. Additional countries with good potential are connected to this belt. African countries need more global scientific support for their conservation efforts, particularly with respect to ongoing trans-boundary conservation efforts.

Relocations of species have become a tool widely used in nature conservation, but insects have rarely been considered as targets. Here, we present a translocation project of the field cricket (Gryllus campestris L. 1758), which is a threatened species at the northern edge of its range. Only ten populations were left in Lower Saxony (Germany), illustrating the need for urgent conservation measures. After 10 years of monitoring and management of an isolated population, 213 nymphs were captured and released at another nature reserve in summer 2001. The size of the new population increased significantly from 27 singing males in spring 2002 to 335 singing males in spring 2005. The occupied area increased from 5.66 ha to 33.14 ha. Altogether, the translocation project was evaluated as successful, but the inland dune proved to be not as suitable for the species as initially expected. Our results indicate that translocations of highly reproductive insect species are promising, as long as the release locality contains sufficiently large areas of suitable habitat and a high number of wild juveniles from a closely located and large source population are released in a climatically favorable period. Management and restoration of habitats, as well as continuous monitoring are of crucial importance for the success of the translocation project. Moreover, the importance of a high quality of cooperation between conservationists, authorities, foresters, farmers, financiers and scientists cannot be overstated.

This review considers interactive management of wild and zoo populations as a stratesy to support habitat preservation, help sustain key endangered species, and hasten the evolution of zoos and aquaria as proactive conservation organizations. Interactive management supports key species' subpopulations in an integrated fashion, using their study in nature as a way to understand wildlife habitats, ecological processes and conservation threats. In the face of human increase and habitat destruction, the survival of much wildlife will depend upon the utility of fragments of habitat and the survival of relatively small populations whose habitats are reduced or altered and whose numbers are capped. Under such conditions, interactive wild-captive metapopulation strategies may increase the security of key species. Captive propagation skills and urban locations pre-adapt zoos as headquarters for nature preservation. Thus, a key objective in zoo evolution is to focus upon the species and its habitat as the unit of conservation, not the species alone.

The reintroduction of plants will become an increasingly utilized strategy in plant conservation and protected area management. Reintroduction is the deliberate establishment of individuals of a species into an area and/or habitat where it has become extirpated with the specific aim of establishing a viable self-sustaining population for conservation purposes. Plant reintroduction can involve the establishment of an extirpated species into a relatively intact habitat or it can be part of the restoration of a degraded habitat. This will be performed as species become extinct for a number of reasons, such as collecting, introduced herbivores or pathogens and potentially climate change. Although plant reintroductions have the potential to play an important role in species' conservation the long term viability of many reintroductions has yet to be assessed. For the technique to reach it's full potential it requires greater integration with habitat management, restoration and increased international coordination between both theex situ andin situ agencies. In addition the value of introducing stocks of endangered species lacking viable sites for reintroduction to non native sites is discussed.

Forest management practices, particularly timber harvesting activities, affect the habitats of a large number of wildlife species found in southwestern ponderosa pine forests of the United States. Timber harvesting activities and other vegetative treatments often change the relative abundances of food and cover. Wildlife habitats for some wildlife species are benefited, while the habitats for other wildlife species are detrimentally impacted. The guidelines presented in this paper should be helpful to foresters, wildlife managers, and other interested in maintaining or increasing wildlife habitat qualities in the forest ecosystems investigated. While the wildlife species considered are indigenous to the southwestern ponderosa pine forests, many of the wildlife management principles implied in the guidelines are likely to have applications in other ecosystems throughout the world.

An important question that arises is what to do when an invasive exotic is a species threatened with extinction within its original distribution and there are few cases in the world illustrating this situation. These species potentially compete with local species for resources and may displace native species or, may in some cases, weaken the gene pool of the native species. The simple eradication of the invasive population could reduce the species′ gene pool, and the eradication process might affect local sympatric species. We recommend a program including identification of areas within the natural range where the species is extinct, removal of the causes of extinction in those areas, then gradual removal of the species from its introduced range and release in the relocation areas following proper guidelines for reintroduction of species.