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Protection of biodiversity, human assets, and cultural heritage pose significant challenges to contemporary planning of bushfire mitigation activities. Current mitigation approaches are not always appropriate, and mismanagement is a source of distress for Indigenous peoples. Increased understanding of Indigenous fire knowledge and increased Indigenous participation may provide insight into more appropriate and inclusive land management for fire mitigation. We analysed contemporary Noongar and Western fire practitioner approaches within an Indigenous fire knowledge (IFK) framework to explore knowledge and aspirations for small reserves in the Southwest Australian Floristic Region (SWAFR) global biodiversity hotspot. We recorded an extensive knowledge base, characterised by a highly nuanced approach to burning, held by the Noongar coauthors. We explore potential approaches to applying this knowledge to build collaborative fire mitigation strategies with mutually beneficial outcomes for biodiversity, cultural heritage, and human assets.

Purpose Endemic to Noongar Country of southwestern Australia, the charismatic and much-loved mistletoe, Nuytsia floribunda (Labill.) R.Br. ex G.Don (Munjee/Moodjar in Noongar language), was the subject of a 2010 review which explored aspects of its cultural importance and botanical attributes based largely on early colonial accounts and scientific findings. Our purpose was to apply cross-cultural methods to review and update findings reported by Hopper (2010). Methods We have recently explored this iconic species through a collaborative Elder-led, cross-cultural process, largely through oral accounts of contemporary Merningar Noongar knowledge holders. Results We record previously unpublished insights relating to Nuytsia floribunda, and longheld Noongar custom relating to its conservation, use and multi-faceted relationships with southwestern Australia’s First Nations peoples. We present Noongar- and Western science-derived knowledge relating to the physiology, ecology and evolution of this species. Conclusion The unique biology, ingenuity and physical prominence of Nuytsia floribunda has been recognised in Noongar lore for millennia. We suggest it as a valuable teacher and exemplar of prosperous survival in old, climatically-buffered, infertile landscapes and to this end, should be widely celebrated.

Aims and background Underground storage organs (USOs) have long featured prominently in human diets. They are reliable year-round resources, especially valuable in seasonal climates. We review a significant but scattered literature and oral recounts of USOs utilised by Noongar people of the Southwest Australian Floristic Region (SWAFR). USOs are important to First Nations cultures in other geophyte-rich regions with Mediterranean climate, with specialist knowledge employed, and productive parts of the landscape targeted for harvest, with likely ecological interactions and consequences. Methods We have gathered Noongar knowledge of USOs in the SWAFR to better understand the ecological role of Noongar-USO relationships that have existed for millennia. Results We estimate that 418 USO taxa across 25 families have Noongar names and/or uses. Additionally, three USO taxa in the SWAFR weed flora are consumed by Noongar people. We found parallels in employment of specific knowledge and targeted ecological disturbance with First Nations’ practice in other geophyte-rich floristic regions. We found that only in 20% of cases could we identify the original source of recorded USO knowledge to an acknowledged Noongar person. Conclusion This review identified that traditional Noongar access to USOs is taxonomically and geographically extensive, employing specific knowledge and technology to target and maintain resource rich locations. However, we also found a general practice of ‘extractive’ documentation of Noongar plant knowledge. We identify negative implications of such practice for Noongar people and SWAFR conservation outcomes and assert ways to avoid this going forward, reviving Noongar agency to care for traditional Country.

Plant species richness increases with declining soil phosphorus (P) availability, especially for Proteaceae in old infertile landscapes. This difference in richness might be attributed to faster diversification in lineages adapted to P-impoverished soils, i.e. species that possess specialised P-acquisition strategies, and have lower leaf P concentration ([P]) and higher seed [P]. Alternatively, a longer time for species accumulation might contribute to high species richness in low-P environments due to the geological stability of the landscapes in which they evolved. We assessed differences in diversification of Proteaceae in P-impoverished vs. nutrient-rich environments and whether these were linked to adaptations to P-impoverished soils. We explored mature leaf and seed [P] and investigated how these traits changed over the evolutionary history of the family, and within two species-rich genera (Banksia, Hakea). Faster diversification was correlated with lower leaf and higher seed [P] for species-rich genera across the Proteaceae. For Banksia and Hakea, diversification rates peaked at relatively low leaf [P], but not at the lowest leaf [P]. Ancestral state reconstructions indicated that low leaf [P] is a trait that was likely present in the early evolution of the Proteaceae, with recent transitions to higher leaf [P] across several species-poor rainforest genera. Diversification of Proteaceae correlated strongly with P-related traits. In an evolutionary context, functional cluster roots, low leaf [P] and high seed [P] were likely key innovations allowing diversification. Selection for low leaf [P] early in the evolutionary history of Proteaceae pre-adapted ancestors of this family to diversify into oligotrophic environments. We discuss how our findings are likely relevant for understanding diversification dynamics of other plant families that occur in P-impoverished environments.

Background Ocbil theory aims to develop hypotheses explaining the evolution and ecology of, and best conservation practices for, biota on very old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes (Ocbils).

To illustrate the morphology of sand-binding roots of Haemodoraceae, to conduct a comprehensive survey of the trait, spanning different climates across four continents, and to explore evolutionary hypotheses within a molecular phylogenetic framework. Sand-binding roots in Haemodoraceae were examined, measured and photographed in the field and on herbarium specimens. Photomicrographs were taken of southwest Australian species. The presence and absence of the sand-binding trait was mapped onto previously published phylogenies and an ancestral state reconstruction was performed. Sand grains were very tightly bound to the root surface by persistent root hairs in Haemodoraceae. The majority of genera and species were found to possess sand-binding roots and only 2 of the 14 genera, Conostylis and Tribonanthes, had sister taxa with and without the trait. The trait was recorded in tropical, sub-tropical and wet temperate species, but mainly in semi-arid species. Sand-binding roots were likely to have been present in the ancestor of the family and both sub-families. The presence of sand-binding roots is the probable ancestral condition for Haemodoraceae, associated with a high degree of phylogenetic conservatism and some secondary loss, notably in Conostylis. Experimental studies are needed to understand the ecological and evolutionary forces at work.

The papers in this issue of Kew Bulletin were delivered at a conference with the above title in the Jodrell Laboratory of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew on 12 – 16 October, 2009. Attracting 193 registrants from 34 countries, 50 speakers (including 10 keynote speakers) and 55 poster presenters, the conference proved most successful, as the papers herein highlight. Why was plant conservation chosen as the theme for such an important moment in the history of Kew? This certainly represents a significant shift in focus for the world’s largest botanical garden. A brief historical analysis may help place this shift in context. Although we have no first-hand history of Kew written for its 50th anniversary in 1809 or its centenary in 1859, the enterprise of empire was uppermost in the botanical science and economic botany of Kew during these eras under the respective leadership of Sir Joseph Banks and Sir William Hooker. By the sesquicentenary in 1909, staff had written a first history in which we were told (Bean & Thiselton-Dyer 1908): “Kew is the headquarters of botanical science in the British Empire — one might, without extravagance, say in the whole world. That is its highest purpose. What Greenwich is to astronomy, the National Gallery to painting, the British Museum to archaeology, such is Kew to botany.” The Director, Professor Sir William Thiselton-Dyer (1908) emphasised the important work of Kew on economic botany as well as taxonomy at the time: “Kew, in truth, has no politics or any aim but to accomplish useful work.” Fifty years later, in celebrating the bicentenary of Kew, the essential thrust of the organisation was identified both as a centre for botanical science and as a visitor attraction (Turrill 1959a): “The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, function essentially as a botanical not as a horticultural institution. Nevertheless, the Gardens proper as open to the general public are very beautiful and give recreation and pleasure to thousands of visitors who are not botanists.” This view of Kew as a centre of scientific excellence in botany was further reinforced by Vistas in Botany (Turrill 1959b), an edited volume of essays across the discipline written by global experts of the day. With considerable prescience, the then Director, Sir George Taylor wrote in Turrill (1959b): “The massive contributions to taxonomy [by Kew] have tended to overshadow the more limited output from the Jodrell Laboratory ... [for which] it is confidently expected that there will be early significant expansion in ... [its] activities]. ...Kew is proud of its long traditions of service to botanical science and horticulture and is confident in its power not only to maintain its high position but is poised to add further lustre to its reputation in the field of botanical research in its widest sense” (Taylor 1959). Over the subsequent 50 years, Kew’s Jodrell Laboratory has indeed risen to international eminence alongside the Herbarium, Library, Art and Archives, and RBG, Kew was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2003, according contemporary global recognition of its collections, gardens and scientific programmes — see the recent histories of Kew by Desmond (2006) and Paterson (2008). While the focus on the science of plant and fungal diversity and the sustainable use of plants continue to underpin the work of Kew, dramatic changes in the global environment precipitated a new focus on conservation over the past four decades. Professor Sir Ghillean Prance, Director of Kew from 1988 to 1999, provides in this issue an authoritative review of how this happened. The change of focus towards plant conservation was initiated under the visionary directorship of Professor Jack Heslop-Harrison (McDowell 1996; Desmond 2006; Gunning & Heslop-Harrison 2005), and carried through by his successors and their staff and global partners to today’s cutting edge projects, including the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership. In recent years, Kew has formulated a new set of corporate strategies placed under the umbrella of the Breathing Planet Programme. This is a global partnership programme of existing activities which will be scaled up, resources willing, over the next decade with the aim of inspiring and delivering science-based plant and fungal conservation worldwide, enhancing the quality of life (Fig. 1).

Ancient landscapes, which have not been glaciated in recent times or disturbed by other major catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions, are dominated by nutrient-impoverished soils. If these parts of the world have had a relatively stable climate, due to buffering by oceans, their floras tend to be very biodiverse. This review compares the functional ecophysiological plant traits that dominate in old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes (OCBILS) with those commonly found in young, frequently disturbed, fertile landscapes (YODFELs). We show that, within the OCBILs of Western Australia, non-mycorrhizal species with specialised root clusters predominantly occur on the most phosphate-impoverished soils, where they co-occur with mycorrhizal species without such specialised root clusters. In global comparisons, we show that plants in OCBILs, especially in Western Australia, are characterised by very low leaf phosphorus (P) concentrations, very high N:P ratios, and very high LMA values (LMA = leaf mass per unit leaf area). In addition, we show that species in OCBILs are far more likely to show P-toxicity symptoms when exposed to slightly elevated soil P levels when compared with plants in YODFELs. In addition, some species in OCBILs exhibit a remarkable P-resorption proficiency, with some plants in Western Australia achieving leaf P concentrations in recently shed leaves that are lower than ever reported before. We discuss how this knowledge on functional traits can guide us towards sustainable management of ancient landscapes.

Analysis of cpDNA matK sequences for a total of 43 members of the succulent plant family Crassulaceae, including 24 taxa of Crassula, recovered a well-supported clade comprising Crassula species that is sister to the remainder of the family. The resulting topologies do not support the monophyly of the currently recognized subgenera of Crassula, as one member of subgenus Disporocarpa (C. crenulata) is placed as sister to an otherwise monophyletic subgenus Crassula. The major synapomorphy that has been used to recognize the latter subgenus is a base chromosome number of x = 7 versus a base of x = 8 in the other subgenus. We cannot assess the utility of this feature for defining subgenus Crassula because a chromosome count of C. crenulata has yet to be published. The five accessions of the recently resurrected segregate genus Tillaea (of 24 total Crassula species) included here were placed in four separate, well-supported lineages, one of which is greatly removed from the other four accessions. This suggests that this genus is not valid and should not be recognized. An initial examination of the evolution of habit indicates that a perennial habit is ancestral and that the annual habit is a feature that has been derived at least twice in the genus.

OCBIL theory aims to develop an integrated series of hypotheses explaining the evolution and ecology of, and best conservation practices for, biota on very old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes (OCBILs). Conventional theory for ecology and evolutionary and conservation biology has developed primarily from data on species and communities from young, often disturbed, fertile landscapes (YODFELs), mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. OCBILs are rare, but are prominent in the Southwest Australian Floristic Region, South Africa’s Greater Cape, and Venezuela’s Pantepui Highlands. They may have been more common globally before Pleistocene glaciations. Based on the premise that natural selection has favoured limited dispersability of sedentary organisms, OCBILs should have elevated persistence of lineages (Gondwanan Heritage Hypothesis) and long-lived individuals (Ultimate Self Hypothesis), high numbers of localised rare endemics and strongly differentiated population systems. To counter such natural fragmentation and inbreeding due to small population size, ecological, cytogenetic and genetic mechanisms selecting for the retention of heterozygosity should feature (the James Effect). The climatic stability of OCBILs should be paralleled by persistence of adjacent semi-arid areas, conducive to speciation (Semiarid Cradle Hypothesis). Special nutritional and other biological traits associated with coping with infertile lands should be evident, accentuated in plants, for example, through water-foraging strategies, symbioses, carnivory, pollination and parasitism. The uniquely flat landscapes of southwestern Australia have had prolonged presence of saline lakes along palaeoriver systems favouring evolution of accentuated tolerance to salinity. Lastly, unusual resiliences and vulnerabilities might be evident among OCBIL organisms, such as enhanced abilities to persist in small fragmented populations but great susceptibility to major soil disturbances. In those places where it is most pertinent, OCBIL theory hopefully lays a foundation for future research and for better informed conservation management.

Isoetes eludens, a new, highly localised, endemic species from the Kamiesberg, Northern Cape is described. The aquatic species grows in a shallow temporary gnamma or !gau (rock pool) in Kamiesberg gneiss at an altitude of 1,284 m. It is characterised by a short, strongly 3-lobed stem, relatively short, and broad estomate sporophylls, a complete velum, the presence of an outer sporangium sack (a feature not previously reported for the genus), graphite-black, laevigate megaspores with a narrow, but tall laesura, microspores with near smooth proximal surfaces but with a papillate distal surface, the absence of a ligule and labium, and simple roots with few root-hairs. The systematic relationship of the species is difficult to determine as a result of convergent evolution in the genus. The sporangium sack does not support an affinity with any of the known species. Further surveys are needed to establish the geographical extent and conservation status of this remarkable local endemic.

DNA fingerprinting of Eucalyptus graniticola : a critically endangered relict species or a rare hybrid?

Investigation of the mallee Eucalyptus rhodantha which has an irregular, protracted flowering period demonstrated that individual plants differ in fecundity and phenology and that allele frequencies in the pollen pool change during the flowering season. Allele frequencies of the pollen pool were estimated by several methods which either assumed temporal homogeneity or took flowering phenology into account. These allele frequencies were compared for their abilities to estimate t. The estimates of t based on allele frequencies which took phenology into account were not consistently higher or better than those that did not at any of the four loci surveyed. Changes in the allele frequencies of the pollen pool during the flowering season may contribute to variation between some single-locus estimates of t in E. rhodantha which assume temporal homogeneity, but it was concluded that they are not the major cause of bias.

The mating system and spatial genetic structure of the rare and endangered bird-pollinated mallee Eucalyptus rhodantha were investigated in a remnant stand, using progeny arrays and pollen assayed at four polymorphic allozyme loci. Comparisons of the genetic diversity within and between the pollen pools and maternal parents of two arbitrary subpopulations indicated the presence of spatial genetic heterogeneity which was not broken down by pollen flow. It was suggested that this is the result of a high level if inbreeding and limited pollen dispersal by birds. Estimates of outcrossing rate ranged between t=0·59 and t=0·67 and were at the low end of the range reported for other eucalypts. It was concluded that E. rhodantha has a mixed mating system with a significant proportion of self-pollination. Biparental inbreeding within small neighbourhoods probably also contributed to the high level of inbreeding. The low level of outcrossing observed in E. rhodantha was not consistent with the hypothesis that bird pollination leads to high levels of outcrossing in the Australian flora. However, the level of outcrossing achieved through bird pollination together with high levels of gene flow between populations contribute to the maintenance of the relatively high levels of diversity which characterise the dissected populations of this species.