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Zusammenfassung Hintergrund Obwohl urologische Facharztpraxen zentraler Pfeiler der ambulanten Patientenversorgung in Deutschland sind, fehlen hierzu aktuelle Daten. Eine Beschreibung der Strukturen in Großstädten gegenüber dem ländlichen Raum sowie von Gendereffekten und Generationsunterschieden ist auch als Ausgangsbasis für weitere Untersuchungen erforderlich. Material und Methoden Die Erhebung umfasst Daten des Arztverzeichnisses der Stiftung Gesundheit sowie der Bundesärztekammer und des Statistischen Bundesamtes. Die erfassten Praxen bzw. Kolleg*innen wurden in Subgruppen eingeteilt. Anhand der unterschiedlichen Subgruppengröße lassen sich Aussagen über die Versorgungsstruktur der ambulanten Urologie in Deutschland treffen. Ergebnisse Während in größeren Städten die Mehrheit der niedergelassenen Urolog*innen in Berufsausübungsgemeinschaften (BAG) arbeitet und durchschnittlich weniger Patient*innen betreut, zeigt sich im ländlichen Raum ein besonders hoher Anteil an Einzelpraxen mit mehr zu versorgenden Einwohnern pro Urolog*in. Urologinnen arbeiten häufiger in der stationären Versorgung. Wenn sich Fachärztinnen für Urologie für die Niederlassung entscheiden, dann eher in BAG und eher in städtischen Gebieten. Außerdem zeigt sich eine Verschiebung der Geschlechterverteilung: Je jünger die betrachtete Alterssubgruppe, desto höher liegt der Anteil an Urologinnen unter allen Kolleg*innen. Schlussfolgerung Wir beschreiben erstmalig die tatsächliche Versorgungsstruktur der ambulanten Urologie in Deutschland. Hierbei deuten sich Trends an, die die Art zu arbeiten und die Patientenversorgung in einigen Jahren maßgeblich beeinflussen werden.

Abstract Because plants are considered immobile, they remain underrepresented as concept generators for soft robots and soft machines. However, plants show a great variety of movements exclusively based on elastic deformation of regions within their moving organs. The absence of gliding parts, as found in the joints of vertebrates and insects, prevents stress concentration and attrition. Since plants have no central control unit (brain), stimulus-sensing, decision-making and reaction usually take place noncentrally in the hierarchically structured materials systems of the moving organs, in what can be regarded as an example of physical intelligence. These characteristics make plants interesting models for a new group of soft robots and soft machines that differ fundamentally from those inspired by animals. The potential of such plant-inspired soft robots and machines is shown in six examples and is illustrated by examples applied in architecture and medicine. Graphical abstract

Arboreal habitats are characterized by a complex three-dimensional array of branches that vary in numerous characteristics, including incline, compliance, roughness, and diameter. Gaps must often be crossed, and this is frequently accomplished by leaping. Geckos bearing an adhesive system often jump in arboreal habitats, although few studies have examined their jumping biomechanics. We investigated the biomechanics of landing on smooth surfaces in crested geckos, Correlophus ciliatus, asking whether the incline of the landing platform alters impact forces and mid-air body movements. Using high-speed videography, we examined jumps from a horizontal take-off platform to horizontal, 45° and 90° landing platforms. Take-off velocity was greatest when geckos were jumping to a horizontal platform. Geckos did not modulate their body orientation in the air. Body curvature during landing, and landing duration, were greatest on the vertical platform. Together, these significantly reduced the impact force on the vertical platform. When landing on a smooth vertical surface, the geckos must engage the adhesive system to prevent slipping and falling. In contrast, landing on a horizontal surface requires no adhesion, but incurs high impact forces. Despite a lack of mid-air modulation, geckos appear robust to changing landing conditions.

A conspicuous ‘finger-like’ branching morphology is described for three arborescent Araliaceae species with a focus on the three-dimensional vascular bundle arrangement in leaf insertion and stem–branch attachment regions during ontogenetic development. The central aim of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of the structure and development in leaf insertions and stem–branch attachments of the arborescent Araliaceae species: Schefflera arboricola, Fatsia japonica and Polyscias balfouriana. Therefore, the vascular bundle arrangement in the leaf insertion zone and ontogenetic development of the stem–branch attachment after decapitation were analyzed, with a special focus on their conspicuous ‘finger-like’ branching morphology that, to our knowledge, is unique to the Araliaceae. Decortication of adult ramifications allows for a morphological analysis of the woody strands in the stem–branch attachment regions. Via high-resolution microscopy of serial thin-sections and 3D reconstructions, as well as cryotome sections, anatomical analysis was carried out of the course and arrangement of vascular bundles through leaf insertions and later developing ramifications, including a comparative analysis of the different ontogenetic stages. All three species investigated present a ‘finger-like’ branching morphology with variations in the number and arrangement of the woody strands. Thin-sectioning reveals a conspicuous pattern of leaf trace emergence from the main stem, proceeding into the leaf and the early developing ramifications. Vascular bundle derivatives contribute to the vascular integration of leaves and axillary buds. The described ‘finger-like’ branching morphology in the investigated Araliaceae species represents a sophisticated mode of vascular integration in leaf insertion zones and developing ramifications. In combination with forthcoming biomechanical experiments, this analysis shall serve as a basis for biomimetic translations into textile technology (fiber-reinforced branched composite materials) and civil engineering (optimization of branched building structures).

A pedagogical introduction to the analytical treatment of the collective behavior of active (self-propelled) Brownian particles with short-ranged interactions is presented. The treatment is based on established concepts from the theories of simple liquids and pattern formation. It is shown how microscopic clustering due to self-blocking of directed particle motion leads to macroscopic phase separation described by effective equilibrium concepts holding on length scales larger than the persistence length of the direction motion.

The development of the branch-stem-attachment of Dracaena marginata was analyzed to clarify how a load-adapted arrangement of mechanically relevant tissues, i.e. the vascular bundles with fiber caps, is established during ontogeny. For this purpose, 3D images of four intact and developing buds of D. marginata were repetitively acquired in vivo within the time span of 180 days using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging, as this method allows for non-invasive and non-destructive image acquisition. This methodical approach enabled the classification of distinct ontogenetic stages revealing the complex ontogeny of the branch-stem-attachment in D. marginata and the establishment of a load-adapted tissue arrangement within the junction between branch and main stem. This further allows for a first biomimetic abstraction and the transfer into a technical implementation of the form-structure-function principles found in branchings in D. marginata.

In trajectory space, dynamical heterogeneities in glass-forming liquids correspond to the emergence of a dynamical phase transition between an active phase poor in local structure and an inactive phase which is rich in local structure. We support this scenario with the study of a model additive mixture of Lennard-Jones particles, quantifying how the choice of the relevant structural and dynamical observable affects the transition in trajectory space. We find that the low mobility, structure-rich phase is dominated by icosahedral order. Applying a non-equilibrium rheological protocol, we connect local order to the emergence of mechanical rigidity.

The article presents the production and investigation of a bio-inspired metal–metal-composite inspired by the pomelo peel. The pomelo fruit is able to withstand a fall externally undamaged, even from heights of over 10 m most likely due to the hierarchical structuring of its foamy peel, which represents a complex composite structure. Especially the foam’s struts, which are cells from the biological point of view, consisting of liquid-filled cores and shells (cell walls) with relatively high strength, give point to a technical adaptation. With the objective to make use of the pomelo’s ability to absorb impact energy, the design of a pomelo strut is abstracted and transferred to aluminium/aluminium–silicon-alloy (A356) composite tensile specimens. Testing results show that the properties of the individual materials can successfully be combined. After fracture of the outer high strength, but less ductile A356-shell, the applied stress can still be absorbed by deformation of the inner highly ductile pure aluminium. As a result, the ductility of a bio-inspired composite is significantly higher compared with an A356 tensile specimen. By varying the mould and casting temperatures, the relationship between the production parameters and the quality of the composite is shown. A reduced mould and casting temperature lowers the dendrite arm spacing in the A356 outer shell of the composite material thus leading to an increased tensile strength. The detected metal bond between the two materials is mainly influenced by the interaction between the casting and the mould temperature.

The pomelo (Citrus maxima) is the largest and heaviest fruit of the genus Citrus and can acquire considerable potential energy as it ripens hanging up to 15 m height. Its thick foam-like structured peel presumably acts inter alia as a shock absorbing layer, protecting the fruit as it impacts on the ground upon being shed. Thereby the peel dissipates kinetic energy by being compacted. In order to elucidate the compaction mechanism of the highly heterogeneous pomelo peel, we conducted incremental stress relaxation tests. Two different models describing the stress relaxation curves, namely, the well-known Maxwell model and the Peleg model were compared and found to be suitable to describe the stress relaxation. As the Peleg model involves only two constants describing the relaxation curves it was the method of choice for interpreting the compaction of the peel samples. The inverse of k 1 reflects the initial decay rate of the relaxation process and k 2 is a measure of the samples’ solidity. The behaviour of these constants with increasing strain indicates the strong influence of the peel samples’ geometry and composition which is attributed to the fruit shape, a gradual changing density of the peel, which can be considered as a stacked array of foam layers differing in density, and the turgescence of the biological cells.

A new self-repairing membrane for inflatable light weight structures such as rubber boats or Tensairity® constructions is presented. Inspired by rapid self-sealing processes in plants, a thin soft cellular polyurethane foam coating is applied on the inside of a fabric substrate, which closes the fissure if the membrane is punctured with a spike. Experimental tests are carried out with a purpose built setup by measuring the air mass flow through a leak in a damaged membrane sample. It is shown that the weight per unit area of the self-repairing foam as well as the curing of the two component PU-foam under an overpressure influence the repair efficiency. Curing the foam under overpressure affects the relative density as well as the microstructure of the foam coatings. Maximal median repair efficiencies of 0.999 have been obtained with 0.16 g·cm−2 foam cured at 1 bar overpressure. These results suggest that the bio-inspired technique has the potential to extend the functional integrity of injured inflatable structures dramatically.

Many animals and plants have high potential to serve as concept generators for developing biomimetic materials and structures. We present some ideas based on structural and functional properties of plants and animals that led to the development of two types of biomimetic cable entry systems. Those systems have been realized on the level of functional demonstrators.

Entropy production along a single stochastic trajectory of a biomolecule is discussed for two different sources of non-equilibrium. For a molecule manipulated mechanically by an AFM or an optical tweezer, entropy production (or annihilation) occurs in the molecular conformation proper or in the surrounding medium. Within a Langevin dynamics, a unique identification of these two contributions is possible. The total entropy change obeys an integral fluctuation theorem and a class of further exact relations, which we prove for arbitrarily coupled slow degrees of freedom including hydrodynamic interactions. These theoretical results can therefore also be applied to driven colloidal systems. For transitions between different internal conformations of a biomolecule involving unbalanced chemical reactions, we provide a thermodynamically consistent formulation and identify again the two sources of entropy production, which obey similar exact relations. We clarify the particular role degenerate states have in such a description.

Within Rosa section Caninae (dogroses) two different growth types exist, arching (L-type) and erect (D-type). Due to the specific mode of chromosome allocation during meiosis, character inheritance in dogroses is maternally skewed. In this paper we try to assess the mode of inheritance of the ‘growth form’ in reciprocal hybrids of R. canina L. and R. rubiginosa L. to predict possible ecological niches and radiation processes of hybridogenic offspring. A quantitative analysis of mechanical properties indicates that neither an expected parentally skewed nor an intermediate habit was expressed by the hybrids, but a dominant L-type as in R. canina, regardless of the parental relationship (pollen-parent or seed-parent). Our results implicate two possible scenarios to be further tested: (a) R. canina acts as a species with a dominant allele for the growth form character. If so, this would be the first evidence of a Mendelian character inheritance in the dogroses. (b) ‘Growth form’ in the dogroses is not a Mendelian character, but a syndrom which realises as an emergent functional property with underlying phenotypic structural differences in stem and wood anatomy.

We study n-dimensional diffusive motion in an externally driven harmonic potential. For these systems the probability distribution of the applied work is a Gaussian. We give explicit expressions for its mean and variance, which are determined by a non-local integral kernel relating the time-derivatives of the applied forces. As illustrations, we specialize our results to dragging a colloidal particle through a viscous fluid and to stretching a Rouse polymer with different protocols.

Mechanical architectures of a wide range of climbing plants are reviewed from a wide phylogenetic range and evolutionary contingencies. They include an herbaceous lycopod (Lycopodiaceae) - a woody tropical liana (Apocynaceae), temperate climbers, herbs and shrubs (Ranunculacae), and two representative climbing palms (Arecoideae, Calamoideae). Trends in mechanical properties during development are reviewed and interpreted via changes in anatomical development of the stem and type of connection to host supports. The results indicate that there are some biomechanical features common to diverse climbing plants including (1) phases of relatively rigid stem growth where the climbing stem has to span between supports and (2) a mechanism to achieve greater compliancy towards the base or at points where the slender climbing stem is at risk from excessive mechanical stress. Evolutionary contingencies such as basal plesiomorphic constraint, complexification, simplification and developmental loss can drastically influence ways in which different plants have evolved different biomechanical climbing architectures. Two key developmental features controlling the biomechanics of the climbing stem are (1) the presence/absence of secondary growth and (2) the number, complexity and coordination of development of primary or secondary tissues with varying mechanical properties. Recent research has suggested that evolution of specialized climbing architectures can canalize subsequent evolution of alternative growth forms. The results suggest that the origin and type of climbing architecture can be heavily influenced by ancestral growth forms and architectures. Despite the extremely complex patterns of plant growth form evolution involving “escapes” to and from more specialized or simpler bauplans, selective pressure towards non-self-supporting growth forms is a remarkably persistent and iterative feature of growth form evolution in land plants.

The neotropical liana Croton nuntians (Euphorbiaceae) can occur in a variety of different growth habits. Juvenile freestanding plants are mechanically stable without support and resemble morphologically young trees or shrubs, whereas adult plants are climbers. Ontogenetic variation of bending and torsion properties of different growth phases are analyzed by measurements of flexural stiffness, structural bending modulus, torsional stiffness and structural torsional modulus. Mechanical and anatomical data show two fundamentally different patterns for juvenile freestanding and adult climbing plants. In freestanding plants, mechanical properties and the contribution of cortex, wood, and pith to the stem cross-section vary only little during ontogeny as is typical for semi-self-supporting plants. In contrast, climbing plants become significantly more flexible during ontogeny, as is characteristic for lianas. This is accompanied by a transition to the formation of a less dense wood type with large diameter vessels and an increasing contribution of flexible tissues (less dense wood and cortex) to the cross-sectional area and the axial second moment of area of the stems. Depending on the environmental conditions, freestanding plants can differ considerably in their appearance due to differences in branching system or stem taper. Therefore the influence of light quantity, measured as percentage of canopy opening, on the mechanical properties and the stem anatomy was tested. Freestanding plants grown with strong shade are significantly more stiff in bending compared with plants grown with a moderate light environment.

Unstable and mechanically demanding habitats like wind-exposed open fields or the wave-swept intertidal require rapid adaptive processes to ensure survival. The mechanism of passive reconfiguration was analyzed in two plant models exposed to irregular flow of water or air, two species of the brown seaweed Durvillaea and the giant reed Arundo donax. Irrespective of the surrounding media and the subsequent Reynolds numbers (Re ~ 105 - 107), reconfiguration seems to be the key strategy for streamlining to avoid overcritical drag-induced loads. This passive mechanism is also discussed in the context of the requirement of a maximized surface area for light interception, so that morphological adaptations to rapid reconfiguration represent at least a bifactorial optimization. Both tested plant models exhibited the same principles in streamlining. At a specific threshold value, the proportionality between drag forces and flow velocity can be reduced from the second power close to an almost linear relation. This empirically derived relation could be characterized by a figure of merit or Vogel number (B). A value close to B = -1, resulting in a linear increase of drag force with velocity, was found at higher velocities for both the seaweeds and the giant reed, as well as for a variety of plants described in the literature. It is therefore concluded that the ability to reduce velocity-dependent drag force to a linear relation is a potentially important adaptation for plants to survive in unstable flow-dominated habitats.

Mechanical and chemical properties as well as microfibril angles of wood tissues from different ontogenetic stages are determined for the neotropical lianas Bauhinia guianensis and Condylocarpon guianense. The mechanical properties include the elastic moduli under bending and under dynamic torsion. The chemical analyses cover (i) the content of cellulose, lignin and hemicelluloses fractions, (ii) the monomeric composition of the uncondensed lignin, and (iii) the composition of the hemicelluloses with respect to neutral monosaccharides. By comparing the wood properties of these lianas with the corresponding properties of wood from self-supporting deciduous trees, common characteristics and differences are revealed. Additionally, the changes in the lignin and polysaccharides fractions as well as the variations in microfibril orientation that occur during ontogeny of the two liana species are discussed with regard to their implications for the mechanical properties of wood.

Biomechanical responses of stems of 6- to 7-year-old spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] and beech (Fagus sylvatica L) trees were studied after 4 years of growth in elevated atmospheric CO2 in combination with a nitrogen treatment and on two different soil types. At the end of the treatment, stems were harvested and tested in fresh and air-dried status. Bending characteristics of juvenile wood (modulus of elasticity, termed rigidity) were determined by bending tests. Fracture characteristics (termed toughness) were determined by stroke-pendulum tests. From the base disk of each stem densitometric data were obtained. In spruce, wood produced under elevated CO2 was tougher on both soil types; enhanced N deposition made wood less rigid only on acidic soils. In contrast, beech wood samples showed no significant reaction to CO2 but were significantly tougher under high nitrogen depositions on acidic soil. Effects on wood density of both CO2 and N treatments were not significant, but wood density was higher on acidic soil and so were rigidity and toughness (soil effect). Different genotypes of spruce and beech reacted significantly differently to the treatments. Some genotypes reacted strongly to CO2 or N, whereas others did not react or showed interactions between CO2 and N. This underlines the importance of genetic diversity in tree communities.

The mechanical properties of young stems of Aristolochia macrophylla Lam. and Aristolochia brasiliensis Mart. et Zucc. were studied during elongation growth and primary differentiation. Data for the modulus of elasticity, for the viscoelastic behaviour caused by longitudinal tension and for the shear modulus resulting from torsion around a longitudinal axis were related to the underlying structural changes by quantitative analysis of stem anatomy, tissue distribution, ultrastructure, and cell wall biochemistry. The orientation of cellulose microfibrils was determined by light microscopy and small-angle X-ray diffraction, and the lignin content was determined by thioglycolic acid derivatization and spectroscopic quantification. It was demonstrated that the increase in stability during early development is due to the complementary effects of increase in cell wall material, lignification, and cellulose microfibril alignment. A detailed micromechanical model, considering internal prestresses, is proposed to explain the characteristic biphasic stress-strain behaviour as well as the strain-hardening observed.

A biomechanical method to distinguish self-supporting and non self-supporting growth habits is applied to exceptionally preserved “twigs” ofPitus dayi Gordon. The analysis investigates whether these isolated stem segments are consistent with a self-supporting tree-like habit as suggested by the stumps, trunks and branches of the genusPitus Witham preserved more commonly in the fossil record. Because of difficulties in accurately identifying certain fossil tissues, three centrisymmetrical models were constructed to test a range of possible tissue combinations over five ontogenetic stages. The results suggest a self-supporting habit with trends in mechanical parameters during ontogeny similar to those of extant, self-supporting plants. Less explicitly constrained to the analysis of habit, the investigation also examines the structural significance of specific tissues during ontogeny as observed from contributions of individual tissues to cross-sectional area, axial second moment of area and flexural stiffness.Pitus dayl produced a physiologically “cheap” primary cauline cortex which was rapidly replaced by the development of a rhytidome. A mechanically significant, cauline hypoderm comprising thickwalled sclerenchymatous tissue is absent. This arrangement differs from other tested Palaeozoic pteridosperms interpreted as semi-self-supporting such asLyginopteris oldhamia andCalamopitys sp. in which the primary cortex is mechanically significant and secondary growth of the wood does not reach mechanically significant thresholds within the primary body.