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X-ray mirrors are widely used for synchrotron radiation, free-electron lasers, and astronomical telescopes. The short wavelength and grazing incidence impose strict limits on the permissible slope error. Advanced polishing techniques have already produced mirrors with slope errors below 50 nrad root mean square (rms), but existing metrology techniques struggle to measure them. Here, we describe a laser speckle angular measurement (SAM) approach to overcome such limitations. We also demonstrate that the angular precision of slope error measurements can be pushed down to 20nrad rms by utilizing an advanced sub-pixel tracking algorithm. Furthermore, SAM allows the measurement of mirrors in two dimensions with radii of curvature as low as a few hundred millimeters. Importantly, the instrument based on SAM is compact, low-cost, and easy to integrate with most other existing X-ray mirror metrology instruments, such as the long trace profiler (LTP) and nanometer optical metrology (NOM). The proposed nanometrology method represents an important milestone and potentially opens up new possibilities to develop next-generation super-polished X-ray mirrors, which will advance the development of X-ray nanoprobes, coherence preservation, and astronomical physics., A versatile high precision metrology instrument has been developed that surpass the limits of existing metrology techniques and opens up new possibilities to develop next-generation super-polished X-ray mirrors.

This paper presents the reduction in cross-talk errors in the angular outputs existing in the previously designed six-degree-of-freedom (DOF) surface encoder for nanopositioning and nanometrology. The six-DOF surface encoder is composed of a planar scale grating and an optical sensor head with a reference grating, a displacement assembly and an angle assembly. The diffracted beams from both the scale and the reference gratings are received by the displacement assembly for measurement of the primary XYZ translational motions. The angle assembly only receives the diffracted beams from the scale grating for measurement of the secondary θXθYθZ angular motions. In this paper, at first, the cross-talk errors in the angular measurement results of the previous surface encoder are identified to be caused by the diffracted beams from the reference grating leaking into the angle assembly due to the imperfection of the polarization components of the sensor head. An improved design of the sensor head is then carried out to reduce the cross-talk errors by changing the position of the angle assembly in the sensor head. The sensor head is further optimized by replacing the beam splitter located in front of the angle assembly from a cube type to a plate type. Experimental results have demonstrated that the cross-talk errors were reduced from 3.2 arc-seconds to 0.02 arc-second.

The dynamic properties of crystalline materials are important for understanding their local environment or individual single-grain motions. A new time-resolved observation method is required for use in many fields of investigation. Here, we developed in situ diffracted X-ray blinking to monitor high-resolution diffraction patterns from single-crystal grains with a 50 ms time resolution. The diffraction spots of single grains of silver halides and silver moved in the θ and χ directions during the photolysis chemical reaction. The movements of the spots represent tilting and rotational motions. The time trajectory of the diffraction intensity reflecting those motions was analysed by using single-pixel autocorrelation function (sp-ACF). Single-pixel ACF analysis revealed significant differences in the distributions of the ACF decay constants between silver halides, suggesting that the motions of single grains are different between them. The rotational diffusion coefficients for silver halides were estimated to be accurate at the level of approximately 0.1 to 0.3 pm2/s. Furthermore, newly formed silver grains on silver halides correlated with their ACF decay constants. Our high-resolution atomic scale measurement—sp-ACF analysis of diffraction patterns of individual grains—is useful for evaluating physical properties that are broadly applicable in physics, chemistry, and materials science.

Surface roughness plays an important role in various fields of nanoscience and nanotechnology. However, the present practices in roughness measurements, typically based on some Atomic Force Microscopy measurements for nanometric roughness or optical or mechanical profilometry for larger scale roughness significantly bias the results. Such biased values are present in nearly all the papers dealing with surface parameters, in the areas of nanotechnology, thin films or material science. Surface roughness, most typically root mean square value of irregularities Sq is often used parameter that is used to control the technologies or to link the surface properties with other material functionality. The error in estimated values depends on the ratio between scan size and roughness correlation length and on the way how the data are processed and can easily be larger than 10% without us noting anything suspicious. Here we present a survey of how large is the problem, detailed analysis of its nature and suggest methods to predict the error in roughness measurements and possibly to correct them. We also present a guidance for choosing suitable scan area during the measurement.

Magnetic sensing is present in our everyday interactions with consumer electronics and demonstrates the potential for the measurement of extremely weak biomagnetic fields, such as those of the heart and brain. In this work, we leverage the many benefits of microelectromechanical system (MEMS) devices to fabricate a small, low-power, and inexpensive sensor whose resolution is in the range of biomagnetic fields. At present, biomagnetic fields are measured only by expensive mechanisms such as optical pumping and superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), suggesting a large opportunity for MEMS technology in this work. The prototype fabrication is achieved by assembling micro-objects, including a permanent micromagnet, onto a postrelease commercial MEMS accelerometer using a pick-and-place technique. With this system, we demonstrate a room-temperature MEMS magnetic gradiometer. In air, the sensor’s response is linear, with a resolution of 1.1 nT cm−1, spans over 3 decades of dynamic range to 4.6 µT cm−1, and is capable of off-resonance measurements at low frequencies. In a 1 mTorr vacuum with 20 dB magnetic shielding, the sensor achieves a 100 pT cm−1 resolution at resonance. This resolution represents a 30-fold improvement compared with that of MEMS magnetometer technology and a 1000-fold improvement compared with that of MEMS gradiometer technology. The sensor is capable of a small spatial resolution with a magnetic sensing element of 0.25 mm along its sensitive axis, a >4-fold improvement compared with that of MEMS gradiometer technology. The calculated noise floor of this platform is 110 fT cm−1 Hz−1/2, and thus, these devices hold promise for both magnetocardiography (MCG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) applications. A small, low-power, inexpensive magnetic sensor has been developed in a commercially available platform with a resolution that is within the range of biomagnetic fields. Magnetic sensing is applied in everyday interactions with consumer electronics (such as for navigation) and has the potential to measure extremely weak biomagnetic fields (such as those of the heart and brain). Hitherto, biomagnetic fields have been measured only using expensive mechanisms. However, a team headed by Josh Javor at Boston University, USA has succeeded in applying the benefits of micro-electromechanical systems to fabricate a low-cost magnetic sensor in a small, versatile platform that can be easily integrated into consumer technology. We believe that their new technology has the potential to revolutionize magnetic sensing and offer considerable advantages in such areas as navigation, communication, and biomagnetic field mapping.

Heat treatment is a green, environmentally friendly and mild pyrolysis process that improves the dimensional stability and durability of wood. In this study, Larix spp. Samples were heated at 180 °C and 210 °C for 6 h with nitrogen, air or oil as heat-conducting media. The influence of high-temperature heat treatment on the microstructure, chemical components, and micromechanical properties was investigated. The mass loss rate increased with increasing temperature, and the degradation of wood components resulted in cracks in the cell walls. Samples treated with air showed more cracks in cell walls than were observed in the cells walls of wood treated with the other heat-conducting media. The hardness of the cell walls increased after all heat treatments. In addition, the results showed that heat treatment reduced creep behavior compared to that of untreated wood.

The semiconductor industry continues to produce ever smaller devices that are ever more complex in shape and contain ever more types of materials. The ultimate sizes and functionality of these new devices will be affected by fundamental and engineering limits such as heat dissipation, carrier mobility and fault tolerance thresholds. At present, it is unclear which are the best measurement methods needed to evaluate the nanometre-scale features of such devices and how the fundamental limits will affect the required metrology. Here, we review state-of-the-art dimensional metrology methods for integrated circuits, considering the advantages, limitations and potential improvements of the various approaches. We describe how integrated circuit device design and industry requirements will affect lithography options and consequently metrology requirements. We also discuss potentially powerful emerging technologies and highlight measurement problems that at present have no obvious solution.

As one of the emerging technologies in Indonesia, nanotechnology requires comprehensive studies of supporting infrastructures as well as the regulation that will underpin the quality of nanoproducts or nanoservices. Nanometrology is one of the most important supporting infrastructures for development of nanotechnology. This article reviews the importance of nanometrology and its standardization within the context of nanotechnology development in Indonesia. Current situation of nanotechnology development, relevant standards availability, necessity for new standards, nanometrology development and future goals have been explained. This article contributes novel insights about nanotechnology and nanometrology developments and may help the regulation body to make the policy.

Nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides are the most important classes of biopolymers. The inherent properties of biomacromolecules are contrary to those of well-defined small molecules consequently raising a number of specific challenges which become particularly apparent if biomacromolecules are treated as objects in quantitative analysis. At the same time, their specific functional ability of molecular recognition and self-organization (e.g., enzymes, antibodies, DNA) enables us to make biomacromolecules serving as molecular tools in biochemistry and molecular biology, or as precisely controllable dimensional platforms for nanometrological applications. Given the complexity of biomacromolecules, quantitative analysis is not limited to the measurement of their concentration but also involves the determination of numerous descriptors related to structure, interaction, activity, and function. Among the biomacromolecules, glycans set examples that quantitative characterization is not necessarily directed to the measurement of amount-of-substance concentration but instead involves the determination of relative proportions (molar ratios) of structural features for comparison with theoretical models. This article addresses current activities to combine optical techniques such as Raman spectroscopy with isotope dilution approaches to realize reference measurement procedures for the quantification of protein biomarkers as an alternative to mass spectrometry-based techniques. Furthermore, it is explored how established ID-MS protocols are being modified to make them applicable for quantifying virus proteins to measure the HIV viral load in blood samples. As an example from the class of carbohydrates, the challenges in accurate determination of substitution patterns are outlined and discussed. Finally, it is presented that biomacromolecules can also serve as tools in quantitative measurements of dimensions with an example of DNA origami to generate defined dimensional standards to be used for calibration in super-resolution fluorescence microscopy. Graphical abstract Quantitative analysis of biomacromolecules is accompanied with special challenges different from low molecular weight compounds. In addition, they are not only objects but also tools applicable for quantitative measurements.

The microwave properties of nano-scale structures are important in a wide variety of applications in quantum technology. Here we describe a low-power cryogenic near-field scanning microwave microscope (NSMM) which maintains nano-scale dielectric contrast down to the single microwave photon regime, up to 109 times lower power than in typical NSMMs. We discuss the remaining challenges towards developing nano-scale NSMM for quantum coherent interaction with two-level systems as an enabling tool for the development of quantum technologies in the microwave regime.

The era of research on (engineered) nanomaterials (NM) has been thriving for more than a decade and has delivered many beneficial applications, but also raised concerns about potential negative impacts on human health and ecosystems. The precautionary principle, hence, calls for a regulation of certain types of NM, which in consequence requires their unambiguous identification. Most of the currently available definitions of NM rely on an evaluation of the size of the constituent particles and therefore methods have to be developed to measure this parameter. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is one of the most promising techniques, as its resolving power well covers the nanosize range. However, limited automation of TEM analyses and possible user bias are major drawbacks of the technique and currently put severe constraints on its broader applications in nanometrology. Therefore, the goal of this study was to develop a software code, referred to as AutoEM, to automatically acquire TEM images, measure particle sizes and extract the respective particle size distributions (PSD) of (nano)-materials. The AutoEM software also incorporates methods for elemental analyses of individual particles using electron energy loss and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EELS/EDX) allowing the extraction of element-specific PSDs. Additionally automated acquisition of energy-filtered images (EFTEM) is implemented in the AutoEM software, which can be used, e.g., to derive thickness maps and, thus, to evaluate the thickness of individual (plate-like) particles.

The size of an ion affects everything from the structure of water to life itself. In this report, to gauge their size, ions dissolved in water are forced electrically through a sub-nanometer-diameter pore spanning a thin membrane and the current is measured. The measurements reveal an ion-selective conductance that vanishes in pores, The size of an ion affects everything from the structure of water to life itself. Here, a sub-nanometer diameter pore sputtered through a thin silicon nitride membrane is used to systematically test ion permeability by measuring the electrolytic current and current noise and show that the ions move with a grossly distorted hydration shell in a correlated way.

Nanotechnology is a global phenomenon already impacting, in some way, the scientific, technological, economic and social development, and the culture, of emerging economies, like Mexico’s. As any new technology, on one hand it has the potential to be one of the main sources of productivity growth for these economies, but on the other it can also be the origin of drawbacks if no appropriate actions are taken about. The effects of such impact depend on how the country prepares itself concerning the aforementioned aspects of development. Metrology constitutes a discipline which is transversal to all of these aspects. It has to move forward in order to face the challenges derived from nanotechnology, in proportion to the particular status of the country. Metrology has to be seen as an essential part of nanotechnologies. Any activity within science and technology must be accompanied by reliable measurements. The current paper describes issues and challenges in metrology to be faced in Mexico concerning this technology.

This article is solely intended to elucidate in brief about some of the significant activities being persuaded in the laboratory with the intention of establishing nanotechnology and nanometrology program and objectives in conjunction with various regulatory bodies, academic institutions and industries. Details of standardization activities on synthesis, measurement, characterization and properties for nanotechnology have been highlighted and the perspective of further steps in execution of nano-related programs has been reviewed and discussed.

Diverse novel nanomaterials are being developed for a wide range of applications nowadays. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) assumes specific importance for the measurement of size and other related properties for such nanomaterials. The different aspects related to AFM modes of operation, nanopositioning, sensing systems as well as calibration for reliable characterization in order to meet the nanometrology requirements are discussed. The future targets in this context, set by nanometrology institutes, are also highlighted.

A prototype standard sample GSO 10030-2011 for the stepped parameters of thin layers of single crystal silicon is developed and certified. It is intended for calibration of transmission electron microscopes at magnifications of 1000–1,500,000×. The certified parameters are the step size of the stepped structure and the distance between the (111) planes of the single crystal silicon in this material. Both parameters are independently traceable to the unit of length, the meter.

Elastocapillary phenomena involving elastic deformation of solid structures coupled with capillary effects of liquid droplets/films can be observed in a diversity of fields, e.g., biology and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Understanding the physical mechanisms underlying these phenomena is of great interest for the design of new materials and devices by utilizing the effects of surface tension at micro and nano scales. In this paper, some recent developments in the investigations on elastocapillary phenomena are briefly reviewed. Especially, we consider the deformation, adhesion, self-assembly, buckling and wrinkling of materials and devices induced by surface tensions or capillary forces. The main attention is paid to the experimental results of these phenomena and the theoretical analysis methods based on continuum mechanics. Additionally, the applications of these studies in the fields of MEMS, micro/nanometrology, and biomimetic design of advanced materials and devices are discussed.

A new version of a modulation interference microscope with long-path coordinate table resting on aeromagnetic guides that enables travel of the microscope with deviation from linearity of at most 0.1 μm on path lengths up to 300 mm has been developed. The metrological aspects of the use of the microscope for measurement of the linear dimensions of nanostructures are considered. Results of measurements of the basic parameters of the topology of integrated circuits are presented.

The ensemble of possible and existing nano-objects and nanomaterials is treated as a multilevel multidimensional system. We introduce the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of elements of the system and give a graphical representation for it. A systems approach makes it possible to establish a basis for a continuously updateable and refineable database including the important properties of nano-objects and their interconnections. Creation of such a database is expedient for dynamic data support of nanometrology in its fundamental and applied aspects.

We developed a metrological atomic force microscope (MAFM) using a large range scanning dual stage and evaluated the performance in the measurement of lateral dimension. AFMs are widely used in nanotechnology for very high spatial resolution, but the limitation in measurement range should be overcome to expand its application in nanometrology. Therefore, we constructed new MAFM having a large measurement of 200 mm × 200 mm by using a dual stage and an AFM head module. The dual stage is composed of a coarse and a fine stage to obtain large scanning range and high resolution simultaneously. Precision surfaces and PTFE sliding pads guide the motion of coarse stage, drove by a fine pitch screw and DC motors. Flexure hinges and PZT actuators are utilized for the fine stage. Multi-axis interferometers measure the five degrees of freedom motion of the dual stage for the position control and the compensation of parasitic angular motions. The vertical displacement of AFM tip is measured by a built-in capacitive sensor in the AFM head module within the range of 38 µm. The performance of the dual stage was evaluated and the expanded uncertainty (k = 2) in the measurements of 1-D displacement L was estimated as \( U(L) = \sqrt {(2.8nm)^2 + (3.0 \times 10^{ - 7} \times L)^2 } \). The relative uncertainty in pitch measurement was less than 0.02 % and the improvement of accuracy was verified by comparing with other MAFM, which are mostly due to the expansion of scan range and the compensation of angular motion. To enhance the performance, we will reduce the vibration and examine the motion of stage in the vertical direction during a long range scan.

A subwavelength metallic heterostructure is put forth for the purpose of suppressing sidelobes and improving superfocusing at a quasi-far field region. Improvement has been made by means of optimization of the heterostructure composed of structured Au and Ag thin films. By tuning thicknesses of both the structured Au and Ag films, we can modulate propagation distance of the plasmonic lens and beam width of main lobe for the superfocusing. A finite-difference and time-domain (FDTD) algorithm-based computational numerical calculation was carried out for analyzing the focusing performance and tuning ability of the metal films. Our computational calculation results show that the sidelobes which play negative role for the focusing can be suppressed significantly in the case of the metal film thicknesses of hAu = 50 nm and hAg = 10 nm. Theoretically, the metallic structure with smaller thicknesses of the structured Au and Ag films is helpful for improving the focusing performance. This heterostructure-based device is possible to be used as a superlens or nanoprobe in data storage, nanometrology/inspection, and biosensing etc.

The presence of nanoparticles in the environment can have important implications for both environmental and human health. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are expected to change industrial production and the economy as we know them today. However, nanotechnologies can also be a source of risks. The increasing use of nanoparticles in industrial applications will inevitably lead to the release of such materials into the environment. Accurately assessing the environmental risks posed by nanoparticles requires using effective quantitative analytical methods to determine their mobility, reactivity, ecotoxicity and persistency, many of which have still to be developed. This overview describes some methodological aspects relating to the fields of nanoparticle analysis, nanometrology and analytical chemistry.

The possibility of measuring article machining parameters and machine tool unit operation from electric parameters is studied; transitional resistance, capacitance, inductance, and their dispersion. The resolving capacity of the new method provides control of the process and finishing quality for treatment of articles at the level of nanometrology.

We propose an optical system of a laser microinterferometer for step height measurement with nanometer resolution and we estimate the components of the error. We give a detailed description of a computer program and present an algorithm for processing interference patterns recorded by a CCD-camera.

An interferometer having accuracy in displacement measurement of

This report describes a gated sampling approach for studying the initial formation of sol-gel glasses prepared from sodium silicate solution (water glass) and sulphuric acid. Previously described were how changes in particle size and subsequently how sol-gel formation dynamics can be tracked using time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy, by labeling growing silica nanoparticles with suitable fluorescence probes. One limiting factor of this approach was the ≃2 minute measurement time, which limits this technique for studying the initial sol formation dynamics and limits the measurement precision. Using a continuous flow system and delaying sol flow through different tubing lengths overcomes this problem and allows monitoring of the very early stages of sol formation, second by second after sol preparation, irrespective of the anisotropy measurement time. This technique was applied to studying the initial formation dynamics, within the first 30 seconds, of a 12.01% SiO2 (w/w), pH 0.66 sol-gel, finding that silica particles of ≃1.5 nm mean radius are formed within 10 seconds of mixing the sol-gel.

The features and principles of traditional linear technical measurements and nanometrology are examined. It is shown that traditional technical measurements fully support the requirements of and interchangeability for modern manufacturing with an extensive array of measurement means over wide measurement ranges. Nanometrology serves only for measurement of very small objects in science and in the production of microchips and new materials with the aid of special microscopes based on different physical principles.

Particle-tracking analysis (PTA) in combination with systematic imaging, automatic image analysis, and automatic data processing is validated for size measurements. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in combination with a systematic selection procedure for unbiased random image collection, semiautomatic image analysis, and data processing is validated for size, shape, and surface topology measurements. PTA is investigated as an alternative for TEM for the determination of the particle size in the framework of the EC definition of nanomaterial. The intra-laboratory validation study assessing the precision and accuracy of the TEM and PTA methods consists of series of measurements on three gold reference materials with mean area-equivalent circular diameters of 8.9 nm (RM-8011), 27.6 nm (RM-8012), and 56.0 nm (RM-8013), and two polystyrene materials with modal hydrodynamic diameters of 102 nm (P1) and 202 nm (H1). By obtaining a high level of automation, PTA proves to give precise and non-biased results for the modal hydrodynamic diameter in size range between 30 and 200 nm, and TEM proves to give precise and non-biased results for the mean area-equivalent circular diameter in the size range between 8 and 200 nm of the investigated near-monomodal near-spherical materials. The expanded uncertainties of PTA are about 9 % and are determined mainly by the repeatability uncertainty. This uncertainty is two times higher than the expanded uncertainty of 4 % obtained by TEM for analyses on identical materials. For the investigated near-monomodal and near-spherical materials, PTA can be used as an alternative to TEM for measuring the particle size, with exception of 8.9 nm gold, because this material has a size below the detection limit of PTA.

The development of continuously decreasing workpiece tolerances lies in one line with the perspective of nanotechnology. To fulfil metrological demands since about 1982 new high resolution and high precision measuring devices have been developed. These are computerized instruments and the measuring results are very illustrative figures of tested specimens. But the problem of calibration in the nanometric range is still an open question which normally is done only with high uncertainty. New ideas to find a solution for the problem of sufficiently accurate calibrating will make possible that this measurement technique will be used on a broad basis also in industry.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in combination with systematic random imaging, semi-automatic image analysis and data processing has been validated for size, shape and surface topology measurements of silica nanoparticles. The accuracy of the validated TEM method was assessed by measuring two selected colloidal silica certified reference materials, ERM-FD100 and ERM-FD304. The measurement uncertainties were estimated for the modal and median particle size, shape and surface topology parameters of single primary particles. The single primary particles are distinguished from agglomerates using a linear discriminant analysis approach. After optimization of the binning process, the mode associated to the number-based particle size distribution was obtained by lognormal fitting. The methodology described in this paper, where a high level of automation of calibration, image acquisition, image analysis and data analysis is obtained, gives robust results for the modal area equivalent circular particle diameter (ECD). The expanded uncertainty of the modal ECD is estimated to be about 3 %. The largest contribution to the expanded uncertainty was found to stem from the uncertainty associated to the trueness of the TEM method., JRC.D.2-Standards for Innovation and sustainable Development

The coating of thin films is applied in numerous fields and many methods are employed for the deposition of these films. Some coating techniques may deposit films at high speed; for example, ordinary printing paper is coated with micrometre-thick layers of clay at a speed of tens of meters per second. However, to coat nanometre thin films at high speed, vacuum techniques are typically required, which increases the complexity of the process. Here, we report a simple wet chemical method for the high-speed coating of films with thicknesses at the nanometre level. This soap-film coating technique is based on forcing a substrate through a soap film that contains nanomaterials. Molecules and nanomaterials can be deposited at a thickness ranging from less than a monolayer to several layers at speeds up to meters per second. We believe that the soap-film coating method is potentially important for industrial-scale nanotechnology. We acknowledge support from the Sundsvall Community, Länstyrelsen Västernorrland, KK foundation, and EU Regional funds.

Questions related to metrological assurance of measurements of the roughness and relief parameters of nanostructured surfaces are considered. On the basis of an analysis of current developments in the area of scanning probe microscopy, a description of the physical and technical characteristics of different types of instruments for measurements in the nanodimensional range is given and the traceability of these characteristics to standards of the unit of length is demonstrated.

Nominal PbSe nano-islands were grown in the Stranski-Krastanow mode on (111) oriented PbTe/BaF2 pseudo-substrates by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). The number density and morphology of these islands were assessed by means of atomic force microscopy (AFM). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was employed to determine the strain state and crystallographic structure of these islands. On the basis of both AFM and TEM analyses, we distinguish between different groups of tensibly strained islands. The suggestion is made to use such nano-islands as part of nanometrology standards for scanning probe microscopy.

A single-electron transistor containing an island of superconducting aluminium could lead to a new way of defining the ampere