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The status of circular economy (CE) in Thailand is reviewed in this chapter. The current CE practices and policy instruments used towards sustainable resource management in Thailand are presented as well. CE indicators for Thailand are extensively studied and summarized in the paper. Based on the review, it is established that the existing policies and programs on CE are focused more towards 3R concepts and less on other sub-sects of CE such as products-as-services, next life sales, product transformation, collaborative consumption, etc. Currently, CE indicators are primarily based on 3R concepts, whereas it is recommended that the other sub-sects of CE should also be taken into consideration to measure the actual CE progress. Employing packaging waste in Thailand as a case study, the current circular economy practice and key barriers to CE implementation were assessed to propose appropriate policy measures for sustainable waste and resources management. There has been an increase in packaging waste in the municipal solid waste (MSW) stream, of which plastic poses a key challenge in the urban waste stream. The current flow of packaging waste is predominated by recycling as downcycling. Most packaging waste remaining at landfills is one-time-use packaging. According to the comprehensive assessment, consumers had positive attitudes towards 3R practices and were conscious of waste problems. Economic incentives and regulatory instruments in line with a new waste management policy framework are recommended to overcome the barriers hindering CE implementation. Packaging waste management policy framework and policy measures are established through this study.

Online shopping, a form of electronic commerce (e-commerce), is a type of business where buyers and sellers interact electronically (using the Internet channel) for the exchange of goods and services and payments of the transaction. E-commerce offers positive environmental effects, for example, greenhouse gas emission reduction due to reduced traveling needs by individual consumers, and other energy use in traditional brick-and-mortar shops. However, online shopping is not entirely free from negative environmental impacts. Packaging waste from e-commerce is one of such concerns. A typical e-commerce parcel may use up to seven types of packaging materials: paper bills, envelopes, cardboard box, plastic bags, woven bags, tape, and buffer materials (bubble wrap, styrofoam). Environmental impacts of online shopping can be categorized into first-order (information and communication technology equipment usage), second-order (changing of processes and markets affecting the logistics system for product fulfillment and delivery), and third-order (rebound) effects. Thai e-commerce market is advancing to become one of Asia’s top performers. According to the Electronic Transactions Development Agency, the value of the Thai e-commerce market in 2016 was expected to reach 2,523.99 billion Baht. At present, Lazada is a popular business-to-consumer e-commerce company in Thailand. A survey conducted to identify consumers’ awareness and willingness to reduce environmental impacts of online shopping revealed that a 13.8% of the respondents had never purchased anything via the online channel, citing lack of opportunity to touch/feel the product, and fear of deception being the reasons. Of the online shoppers (86.2%), only 11.8% felt that the product arrived with an ‘excessive’ packaging, and they, however, simply discard those packaging materials. In order to transform e-commerce into Green commerce, companies need to invest in packaging innovation and sustainable supply chain mechanisms including reverse logistics system to promote reuse and recycling, while consumers also need to display sustainable consumption behavior.

In the midst of increasing global production of domestic wastewater over the years, the treatment capacities did not show promising increments to keep up with it. Traditionally, biological treatment systems such as wetlands, conventional activated sludge (CAS), trickling filter processes, and rotating biological reactors were used to treat these wastewaters. The capital and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs of the process play a critical role in the final system selection. During the past decade, membrane bioreactor (MBR) has progressively replaced these biological wastewater treatment systems. For example, the most advanced form of MBRs called membrane-aerated biofilm reactors (MABRs) could be operated with higher energy efficiency of 70% compared to CAS process. Moreover, even at a low footprint, MBRs could achieve a high volume of treatment in existing area with records of up to 50% extra capacity. Following these MBR systems, the next technological innovation was membrane-aerated biofilm reactor (MABR), which uses the bubbleless aeration through the lumen of fiber membrane. The bubbleless aeration, in fact, assists the smooth growth of microorganisms compared to the bubbled aeration in CAS process which often interferes with the microbial growth in the system. Apart from providing diffused aeration, the membrane also serves as attachment medium for microorganisms that consume organics and nitrogen, thereby purifying the wastewater. Thus, within a single reactor, simultaneous nitrification and denitrification are achieved. The MABRs have been successful in the treatment of variety of pollutants such as landfill leachate, pharmaceutical wastewater, ammonia-rich wastewater, domestic wastewater, and anaerobic digestion liquor. In addition, their applications have flourished for the treatment of high carbon and nitrogen wastewater, volatile organic compounds, and xenobiotic components. However, the major limitation of this process is maintaining optimal biofilm thickness on the membrane surface and scaling-up mechanisms to real scale plants.

Solid waste management in Sri Lanka is a curial issue but it has been abridged by improvements in waste collection system and awareness programs. As the country’s population is increasing, the waste generation is also increasing. Hence, formulation of a sustainable solid waste management system has become crucial. More than 60 % of the solid waste generated is organic in nature. The prevailing MSW treatment and disposal methods are open dumping, landfilling, composting, anaerobic digestion and incineration. In terms with 3R, there are 2 notable programs that are National Post-consumer Plastic Waste Management Program and “Pilisaru” Waste Management Program. The national government is taking steps at policy level to tackle the problem of waste management in Sri Lanka and it also collaborated with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) and United States Agency for International Development–United States-Asia Environmental Partnership (USAID–USAEP) to improve the situation in the country. Although the policy documentation has no inference to waste to energy (WTE) projects, particularly with landfill bioreactors and Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with a view to developing Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) approaches, but ISWM is believed to be the right of way forward for sustainable solid waste management systems in the country.

Recycling in high income countries is a green business opportunity performed in a formal setting, especially with large scale material recovery and recycling facilities. This is different to informal recycling in low-income countries, where recycling is more of an economic activity than environmental cleaning, and is largely handled by unorganized groups or individuals known as ‘informal sector.’ Informal approach of recycling on one hand contributes to poverty reduction and environmental sustainability through social capital building, while managing the waste. However, use of primitive waste handling technologies on the other hand often misrepresents recycling as polluting industry. Unorganised and unregulated nature of the informal waste sector often characterizes it as a nuisance than a legitimate stakeholder. This chapter reviews in detail the characteristics of informal recycling sector, with selected cases from Asia. It also analyzes the possibilities and challenges for integration of informal sector into the formal waste management system.