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The face of climate action is increasingly young, well informed, and active. But despite the growing rumble of this youth-quake, the New Zealand political system has to date been slow to respond to climate change mitigation. This article will therefore critically explore the apparent paradox between the image of New Zealand as a leading progressive democratic society, and its current response to the climate emergency. In particular, the paper will interrogate this theme from the perspectives of the international critique of New Zealand's current legal and policy response, the dynamic lens of climate change litigation and its potential to influence public policy, and the increasing impact of tikanga Māori as a primary source of New Zealand law and its relational approach to the wellbeing of the environment and the underlying ethic of stewardship. The overall thesis of the paper will be that cumulatively these trends will have the energy to generate an effective response to climate change and mobilise the urgent joined-up action required to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and build adaptive capacity within the closing opportunity of the next two decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flooding is Aotearoa-New Zealand's most frequent natural hazard, and there is high confidence that climate change is making extreme rainfall events more frequent and intense. Additionally, there are significant development pressures which could both increase the number of people and assets at risk and the flood hazard. To date, there is no publicly available consistent approach to accurately determine flood risk on a national scale, nor for how this may be changing; although there is a growing legislative requirement to provide quality information over multiple spatial scales. This paper draws on empirical data to gain insights on how to best manage changing flood risks in Aotearoa-New Zealand from the perspective of centrally organised entities. Findings confirm the need for a nationally consistent approach to flood risk management, better understanding of Aotearoa's communities and their vulnerability to floods, equitable access to quality information and decision-support tools, and better understanding of the economic impacts on differing communities, regions and places. The paper concludes that to achieve a flood-resilient Aotearoa, flood governance needs to be reconfigured to achieve national consistency in flood risk management whilst enabling targeted variability at the local scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many of the implications of climate change for Aotearoa (New Zealand) remain unclear. To identify so-far unseen or understudied threats and opportunities related to climate change we applied a horizon-scanning process. First, we collated 171 threats and opportunities across our diverse fields of research. We then scored each item for novelty and potential impact and finally reduced the list to ten threats and ten opportunities through a prioritisation process. Within the 20 items presented in this paper, we uncover a range of climate-related costs and benefits. Unexpected opportunities evolve from economic reorganisation and changes to perspectives. The threats we highlight include the overall failure to interconnect siloed policy responses, as well as those relating to extreme events and feedbacks, as well as pressures that undermine the coherence of society. A major theme of our work is that climate change effects in Aotearoa are likely to transgress the boundaries of research disciplines, industry sectors and policy systems, emphasising the importance of developing transdisciplinary methods and approaches. We use this insight to connect potential responses to climate change with Aotearoa's culture and geography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the climate crisis increases in severity, the number of persons who will be displaced both internally and across state borders will rise exponentially. There is currently an alarming lacuna in international law regarding the protection of persons displaced by climate change, the implications of which are becoming increasingly dangerous as numbers inevitably surge. This paper explores potential mechanisms of protection for individuals displaced by climate effects internationally and regionally, analysing the merits and limitations of each avenue. Through a case study regarding the attempted humanitarian visa programme for Pacific Islanders in New Zealand, the paper establishes the need for rights-based mechanisms on both the international and regional levels designed to protect persons impacted by climate displacement through an autonomy-focused, culturally cognisant approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the impact of climate change, the use of both energy and resources that lock in future energy use is receiving heightened attention. New Zealand has lagged behind many similar countries in not requiring an explicit energy certification for dwellings. This paper reviews the form of energy certification used by similar countries and discusses the potential impact of applying the various forms to New Zealand dwellings. Specifically, it compares how different forms of comparison, or normalisation, value the features of a home and implicitly rate which dwellings are considered 'like' each other. Of the 85 buildings compared none received consistent rankings across all the normalisation methods and only one was in the 'better' half of the data under all nine of the normalisation methods used. Some of the forms of normalisation systematically advantaged large dwellings, and others small dwellings. Since normalisation methods can be chosen to value certain aspects of dwelling design, there needs to be a discussion about what we value in dwellings in order to determine which method(/s) would be appropriate for New Zealand. The main purpose of this paper is to alert social scientists of the need to have this value-based discussion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Academics have long regarded air travel as vital to pursuing a successful career. Meanwhile, many academics are at the frontline of climate change science and advocate the urgency to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The conflict between combating global warming and high aeromobility practices traps academics in a loop of hypocrisy. However, COVID-19 presents an opportunity for academics to advance their research and careers with reduced aeromobility. This research investigates how academics have adapted to virtual working experiences during COVID-19 and the implications for establishing changes in aeromobility practices. Informed by the theory of practice change, this paper reports the findings of a comprehensive survey and interview programme in New Zealand. It provides insights into the prospects for reduced aeromobility and the institutional policy frameworks required to embed a new normal, considering the unique circumstances faced by academics working at geographically remote institutions. The findings reveal that instead of being trapped in a loop of hypocrisy, New Zealand academics face a moral quandary in being concerned about climate change and wishing to reduce aeromobility practices, while wanting to avoid compromising career success. Recommendations for academics to face this moral quandary and their institutions to support practice change are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides new evidence on the validity of using expert ratings of wine as a measure of wine quality for predicting the effects of climate change on the wine industry. We used Bob Campbell's ratings of New Zealand wines to look for a relationship between the ratings and climatic variables that predicts a plausible optimal growing-season temperature for the main wine varieties and wine regions in New Zealand. Such a relationship can be used to forecast the effects of climate change on wine quality to better understand when wineries need to adapt to a warming climate. We used both individual wine ratings and overall vintage ratings, averaged by region and variety from the individual ratings, to compare in a controlled setting their success in predicting plausible optimal temperatures. We find that using the vintage ratings produces substantially more precise and plausible findings than using the individual ratings. We conclude that there is great potential in using vintage data constructed from expert ratings for individual wines for climate change research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses Aotearoa-New Zealand's "shovel-ready fund" to assess if, and how, blue–green infrastructure systems were present in bids from its largest city regions. Findings indicate a greater prevalence in areas with existing spatial plans, and while there was some consideration of climate resilience, there was no real acknowledgement of the pandemic or human health. More positively, there was some evidence of unique indigenous influences that have potential to develop more inclusive and holistic blue–green infrastructure initiatives. The overall response, however, demonstrates a disjointed approach to blue–green infrastructure-related projects, and a missed opportunity for a more transformative response to the climate crisis and human health emergencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Against a backdrop of increasing pollen allergy prevalence, this paper reviews the current state of knowledge of allergenic pollen loading in New Zealand. An unavoidable conclusion is that relevant available datasets are fragmentary, incomplete and out-of-date, with the last nationwide survey conducted >30 years ago. In contrast, many other developed regions continue to provide routine, standardised pollen reporting and forecasting to assist with the management and treatment of seasonal allergic rhinitis and related diseases, which affect a large proportion of the population. The data also inform wider research including investigating allergic rhinitis co-association with other health issues and monitoring and projecting the impacts of climate change on pollen production and dispersal; fundamental biological processes that underpin most life on Earth. New Zealand is lagging well behind other regions in realising these benefits by failing to implement a programme of routine aeroallergen monitoring at major population centres. The data generated would also help to answer some pressing questions in relation to respiratory disorder in New Zealand and in particular whether the timing and severity of key pollen allergens are changing and new sources are establishing as a result of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Where does life live? What is alive? In modernist/dualist thinking, we might assume that life lives through cause and effect—an acting of someone onto something. When conceived through an Indigenous-Māori concept of mauri—life vitality— the immanence of living as a relational field is revealed. An ethical imperative to sustain the wellness of the life-field, mauri-ora, is concurrent with the concept of mauri. This paper philosophically probes the immanent and ethical conditions of this life-field and its relational sustenance as the very ground for design thinking. Here, I explore an architectural project, Te Uru Taumatua, as a case for thinking through mauri-ora (life-field)asimmanent ethics in relation to an evocation of ecological vitality. This project becomes a bridge for thinking immanent connections across Indigenous-Maori and contemporary ecological thinking. This paper argues that architecture’s role as an Anthropocenic actor creates the conditions necessary to instantiate socio-ecologically situated immanent ethicsasdesign ethics. What is fundamental to this approach is to reveal howecological designis a thinking manifest here, in this case study,asthe relation of mauri to mauri-ora. Here, Te Uru Taumatua helps to explore an understanding of mauri-ora as an immanent ethics which bridges (design) thinking and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Air travel forms a substantial component of an organisation's carbon profile, and questions around business travel are becoming more pertinent given the accelerating climate crisis. The current coronavirus pandemic, however, has effectively stopped much travel and organisations had to adapt by switching most interactions to online meetings. Drawing on social practice theory, this paper examines changes in staff air travel behaviour observed in a New Zealand government agency, following the nationwide lockdown in 2020. Integrating air travel data, a staff wellbeing survey and 18 interviews, the research reveals fundamental differences in the meaning of face-to-face versus online meetings, the inseparable nature of productivity and personal wellbeing, and the change processes that staff noted when faced with a (temporary) new reality of restricted mobility. Whether modified routines remain or not will not only be influenced by the government's imposed carbon budgets, but also will be a question of organisational leadership, politics, and ultimately the ethics of trading off environmental impacts with other perceived needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE) Vision Mātauranga policy has created a clear message for researchers in Aotearoa/New Zealand – that research conducted in Aotearoa New Zealand should recognise and support the 'unlocking of the innovative potential of Māori for the benefit of all New Zealand' and be designed with a clear engagement pathway. However, there is still confusion amongst many researchers on where to begin when considering the Vision Mātauranga component of their research. Iwi and hapū management plans are a valuable resource for researchers to use as a starting point when planning projects, particularly with regard to Vision Mātauranga opportunities. Many of these plans outline the issues, challenges and resource priorities that an iwi or hapū may have, as well providing historical context for their knowledge and experiences. Despite their usefulness, our research found that only 22% of natural hazard researchers surveyed used them in their research process. The purpose of this paper is to raise awareness of the value of these plans for researchers, particularly when developing a research project; and to provide a starting point for engagement opportunities and activities with Māori. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The New Zealand government has earmarked community energy as an investment mechanism that could assist the country in reaching its climate change goals, as well as lead to local benefits for its citizens. The objective of this paper is to identify what community energy initiatives are occurring in New Zealand, and the respective impacts that have arisen. A desk survey was undertaken, through an academic database and internet search to collect relevant resources and data. The country has a history of community energy initiatives; however, data on the impacts of community energy initiatives are scarce, at both a local and national level. The study also found diversity in the communities that are, or possibly could, benefit from community energy projects, each with differing motivations for participation. A national understanding of the successful impacts of community energy initiatives is needed, as well as more monitoring and analysis on the impacts of current projects. Ascertaining the true value of community energy is a complex task, but vital should development of these projects be pursued. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme (NZ ETS) broke new ground in ETS design. Drawing from analysis of core policy documentation, this paper examines the rationale, outcomes, and outlook for three key innovations – broad sectoral coverage with some upstream points of obligation, the absence of a hard limit on system emissions, and a two-part cost containment mechanism – following the first decade of operation. It also provides comparative assessment with the European Union Emissions Trading System and California Cap-and-Trade Program. The NZ ETS was designed around the principle of least-cost compliance with international responsibility targets and a core assumption that the Kyoto Protocol emissions market would converge toward an efficient emission price aligned with rising global mitigation ambition. This assumption did not become a reality. As a result, the NZ ETS has produced a functional cross-sector trading market but little incentive for domestic mitigation to date. In late 2019, amendments were introduced to reform sectoral coverage, unit supply, and price management features so the system will better support New Zealand's targets under the 2015 Paris Agreement and 2019 Zero Carbon Act. However, substantial technical and political challenges remain to set near-term domestic mitigation ambition, phase out industrial free allocation, determine the mitigation contribution from the land sector, and design the agricultural emissions pricing regime. The evolution of the NZ ETS, relative to other systems and in response to national circumstances, offers insights that can inform the future development of emissions trading globally. Key policy insights Since 2008, the NZ ETS has successfully pioneered broad cross-sector emissions trading with upstream energy-sector obligations and deforestation obligations with afforestation crediting. Pricing of biogenic agricultural emissions is anticipated from 2025. The government's failure to adapt unit supply and cost containment mechanisms to changing market conditions has undermined incentives for domestic mitigation, resulted in a large bank of participant-held emission units, and subjected the market to long-term policy uncertainty. A cap on auctioning and new price management features will better equip the NZ ETS to support New Zealand's domestic emission reduction targets, but strategic questions remain about the future role of the land sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses a formidable site management challenge to coastal archaeologists and heritage planners. To manage its impacts, multi-scalar assessments are being employed that incorporate spatial technologies such as GIS, LiDAR, and GPS. While these technologies provide a powerful means of identifying susceptibility and tracking impacts, their ability to direct site management is limited by the accuracy of their incorporated archaeological geospatial data. Without current information regarding the location, condition, and extent of sites, spatial analyses cannot readily adapt to changing site conditions or drive site-specific management. To address this issue, this paper sets out a methodology that combines field survey with GIS-based spatial analysis to track erosion and inundation's impact on coastal sites. This approach is applied to Blueskin Bay, New Zealand, where 26 sites were visited and had Differential GPS (DGPS) data collected of their visible archaeological features. The inclusion of this geospatial data into the GIS-based Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) tool and Sea Level Rise (SLR) model allowed sites to be considered on a scale much finer than conventional computer-based impact assessments. Ultimately, this fine scale approach has the capability of driving better, more informed site management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue reviews the state of biodiversity conservation in New Zealand, following the establishment of the Department of Conservation (DOC) in 1987. Here we summarise events that led to the formation of DOC, and the unprecedented series of changes in how biodiversity conservation has been viewed and conducted. Subsequent papers in this issue outline the successes, failures and key technological shifts in biodiversity conservation in New Zealand in the past 30 years; how visionary people and institutions have instigated conservation at landscape scales and in urban areas; the growing roles of Māori and non-Māori communities; and audacious new goals that reflect continuing attitudinal changes to the conservation of native biodiversity alongside the global and local implications of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resilience theory has emerged as a holistic concept well suited to analyzing tourism systems and which promises important insights into the sustainability of tourism destinations in the face of accelerating global environmental change (GEC). This article presents empirical research into the social-ecological resilience of tour operators using the case study destination of the Otago Peninsula, Dunedin, New Zealand. It addresses the following research question: How do birdwatching tour operators build resilience to drivers of environmental change, including climatic drivers, into their operations? Qualitative interviews with providers of a specific nature tourism sector activity – birdwatching – were conducted with stakeholders including tour operators, conservation organizations, and local government members. The findings highlight current and possible future challenges to birdwatching tourism on the Otago Peninsula. The paper introduces a conceptual framework which highlights the tour operators' main coping strategies in response to key perceived social-ecological system (SES) drivers of change. Overall, tour operators perceived their main social-ecological resilience to be the diversity of the species of the Otago Peninsula, their business experience, and the strength of their local stakeholder network to respond to SES crises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research concerned with energy and housing in NZ has been focusing on the cost-effectiveness of maintaining warmth. Studies have concentrated on heat loss from houses and the efficiency of heating systems. One of the consequences of this has been Government subsidies for insulation and heat pump installations to reduce energy consumption in winter months. This has led to a significant growth in the heat pump market. Research indicates that these devices are not significantly decreasing the demand for electricity in winter. Of greater concern is that there is an increase in demand for electricity for cooling purposes which introduces a new and significant electrical load in the summer. This paper will analyse the research currently being undertaken on the long-term impact of both climate change and energy depletion and the consequences for Building Code standards and ‘sustainability’ rating tools for housing. The paper concludes that policy should be directed at long-lasting improvements to the fabric of houses rather than subsidizing short-lived equipment that not only increases electricity consumption, but also does not allow the human body the ability to adapt over time to the predicted increased average temperatures in New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, the issue of energy use and climate change is at the forefront of many national and international agendas, and also an issue central to children's lives and well-being. This paper examines how children are both affected by and contribute to the problems associated with unsustainable energy use as it relates to the growth of car dependent lives. The paper presents the findings of a study of travel as it relates to the everyday lives of children in the city of Dunedin in New Zealand. The study found that children currently lead complex car dependent lives. This extensive car reliance presents a serious and largely unrecognised challenge to the sustainable planning and management of the urban environment. The move towards more sustainable transportation can bring benefits for both the environment and for children's lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The voluntary carbon market (VCM) is a relatively mature field where institutions have become firmly established. This empirical paper explores findings obtained from interviewing key actors within the VCM in New Zealand, at a time when the organizational field was beginning to emerge (2010/2011). Fourteen semi-structured interviews were carried out with managers and decision-makers at 13 organizations, representing a cross-section of leaders in the field at the time. Participants were investigated regarding their cognitions as well as their operational activities and interactions with the range of actors in the field, and how these evolved over time. Case studies of the wine industry, the taxi industry and the carbon services industry are presented. Findings identify a number of early successes, including endeavors which focused on promoting market integrity through infrastructure and knowledge sharing amongst participants, which influenced others to shift behavior around climate change mitigation in general. Setbacks are evident as well, with the primary setback characterized as market stagnation: buyers and sellers drifting away from the market. Communication challenges, low certification recognition, risk of greenwash exposure, policy uncertainty, the global financial crisis and general disenchantment with the carbon market were listed as some of the causes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is a critical sustainability challenge for alpine tourism and the ski industry. Climate change adaptation is characterised as identifying and taking advantage of new business opportunities plus reducing physical risks. For adaptation strategies to be sustainable they should consider the environment, economy and society. While several adaptive ski industry strategies have been identified, not all can fulfil these criteria; some adaptive strategies could be perceived as unsustainable, or maladaptive. This paper provides a qualitative, perceptual study of ski industry stakeholders in Queenstown, New Zealand, addressing perceptions of climate change adaptation by the core industry, wider industry actors, local community and tourists. It answers two research questions: What are perceived as the main climate change adaptation strategies for Queenstown's ski industry? How do ski industry stakeholders perceive current adaptation strategies in terms of sustainability? It finds snowmaking central to addressing both current weather variability and medium/long-term future climate change. Ski-field operators use snowmaking to ensure the industry's economic sustainability, to extend seasons even beyond traditional norms, but with little consideration for environmental or social sustainability. It finds some local people questioning snowmaking on ethical and environmental grounds, and skier acceptance of snowmaking connected to activity preference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concerns about climate change and water quality make it necessary to have a better understanding of the cycling of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) within landscapes. In New Zealand, pastoral farming on hill country is a major land use, and there is little information available at a landscape level on the cycling of C and N within these systems, particularly the impacts of land use intensification. Published information on the individual components of C and N cycles in hill country pastoral systems was used to construct simple C and N models for two notional hill country paddocks with contrasting amounts of annual net herbage accumulation (NHA). These simple models of C and N cycling were used to explore the potential impacts of intensification on soil C and N pools. The C and N models constructed illustrate that both the C and N cycles in hill country pastoral farming are characterised by large fluxes in and out of the system and relatively small annual accumulations or depletions of their respective soil pools. The mechanisms by which these inward and outward fluxes are generated differ greatly between C and N. Most of the C cycling through the soil/plant/animal system in a year is sourced from the atmosphere through photosynthesis in that same year and the annual quantity of C ingested by grazing animals is only approximately 25% of that fixed annually. In contrast, the annual quantity of N ingested by grazing animals is 300–400% of that added to the system annually by fixation, and most of this ingested N (>80%) is returned to the soil in animal excreta. This contrasts with <25% of ingested C returned in animal excreta. Grazing animals, with their propensity to exhibit camping behaviour, are therefore much more influential in the spatial redistribution of N than C in hill country pastures. The simple C and N models presented in this paper indicate that while land use intensification results in increased inputs of both C and N to the soil, intensification is also likely to result in increased losses of C and N from the soil pool. Which of these processes dominates in a given situation determines whether intensification will result in an increase or decrease of soil C and N. Based on a simple C model, we postulate that if intensification increases NHA by one unit there is likely to be an increase in soil C unless at the same time increased grazing pressure results in at least a three-unit increase in dry matter eaten/harvested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tourism will be highly impacted upon by climate change and adaptation and mitigation policies implemented by other agencies. This paper seeks to increase our understanding of the role tourism plays in relation to climate change policies and identifies gaps where specific tourism policy might be required to address climate change. Based on the case studies of Fiji and New Zealand, common areas of concern relating to climate change will be identified, existing policy settings discussed and challenges of the policy development process explored. Existing climate policies were found to cover tourism for many issues, either directly or indirectly, and tourism-specific policy needs relate mainly to a better integration with these policies, education and capacity building, business performance and marketing. The participatory process and the creation of a tourism-climate change policy network have proven successful in both case studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues for research into the effectiveness of government strategies for a 'carbon neutral public sector'. We review initiatives in three OECD countries: New Zealand, Australia and the UK. In all jurisdictions, government agencies have consistently stressed 'leading by example' as a rationale for adoption. 'Direct mandate' by the Prime Minister (NZ); 'organic development' from wider central government sustainability initiatives (UK); and a more 'laissez faire' approach by Australian Federal and State Governments, were identified as the general pathways leading to implementation. Our assessment indicates: a lack of understanding of the implementation process for carbon neutrality; a need to identify and critically examine the 'offset threshold' at which mitigation efforts cease and offsetting is adopted; an absence of any evaluation of the 'leading by example' rationale; a lack of inter-country comparisons; a gap in understanding the relationship with economic and social aspects of sustainability; and a need to evaluate the utility of core government departments as the focus of carbon accounting. We urge colleagues to consider research in this area with a view to contributing to the interdisciplinary solutions which we believe are required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change mandates parties to prepare for adaptation to climate change. This is of direct relevance to the management of wildlife. Climate change is likely to alter and/or expand the habitats of wildlife and may make the conditions within existing habitat ranges unsuitable for the continued existence of a species. Of necessity, efficacious adaptation must attempt to address this likelihood. Using New Zealand as a case study, this paper considers the range of present legal instruments that might be utilized within that nation to manage the movement of wildlife and identifies any lacunas that should be addressed. The conclusions will be of interest to any nation wishing to protect wildlife from the adverse effects of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a systematic review and correlation of river terraces identified in 44 river catchments in the North Island, New Zealand, to assess river behaviour over the last c. 30 000 yr. This provides a comprehensive foundation from which to assess controls on river dynamics over this critical period of landscape development from the last glacial through to the present interglacial. From this review, an integrated framework for elucidating fluvial responses to environmental change is proposed. Sensitivity of river systems to climate change is variable over this time-scale. Substantial sediment inputs to valley floors during the last glacial reduced sensitivity to subtle climatic shifts. Sensitivity increased during the Holocene, with terraces forming in response to episodes of storminess. Tectonics and volcanic activity may both override climatic forcing to cause either cutting or filling of the valley floor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]