Search

The 'migration journey' has proven to be a fruitful lens to question the simplistic notion that the outcome of migration solely depends on a momentous go/no-go decision in the countries of origin. At the same time, we argue that the normative/sedentarist principles of migration studies produce the risk to approach the journey as an exceptional phase of mobility, in-between presumed place-based lives. This paper therefore aims to explore the conceptual limits of the migration journey literature. To challenge the notion that the migration journey is fundamentally different from pre- and post-migratory mobilities, we combine two empirical research projects that have followed the im/mobility trajectories of West Africans. The first project focuses on the trajectories of itinerant gold miners within West Africa, the second concentrates on the im/mobility of West Africans within Europe. By juxtaposing the empirical insights of these seemingly different contexts, we stress the need to embed migratory movements in a continuous field of mobility practices across spaces in Africa and Europe. This results in our plea for a research agenda that does not see 'migrancy' as a pre-given marker of difference, but as a normative artefact of mobility regimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper emerges from an ethnography of the economic and cultural life of Rye Lane, an intensely multi-ethnic street in Peckham, South London. The effects of accelerated migration into London are explored through the reshaping and diversification of its interior, street and city spaces. A ‘trans-ethnography’ is pursued across the compendium of micro-, meso- and macro-urban spaces, without reifying one above the other. The ethnographic stretch across intimate, collective and symbolic city spaces serves to connect how the restrictions and circuits of urban migration have different impacts and expressions in these distinctive but interrelated urban localities. The paper argues for a trans-ethnography that engages within and across a compendium of urban localities, to understand how accelerated migration and urban ‘super-diversity’ transform the contemporary global city. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

One element of the PARTISPACE study into spaces and styles of Youth Participation in eight European cities is presented in this article. Drawing on ethnographically informed studies of four sites in three cities, the paper analyses the ways in which young people construct and sustain alternatives to the policy-driven forms of participation, based on their yearning and aspiration for different relations than those found in ordinary life. We suggest four themes as characterising their search for community: Places where communities are born; Breaking out of the Ordinary; Differentiated Openness and Protected Zones of Experimentation. In conversation with the work of bell hooks on 'homeplaces' and Victor Turner on anti-hegemonic anti-structures, the analysis suggests that young people's self-created spaces give insights into what 'youth participation' might be and that forms of protection of such alternative spaces are an inbuilt necessity and not necessarily to be seen as exclusionary or anti-democratic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative health care and holistic spiritual practices have become increasingly popular in many Western countries, especially among women, who often claim them to be deeply transformative. This paper presents an ethnographic study of women's tantric retreats in Northwest Europe that aimed to help women reconnect with their vital sexual energy, rediscover the sacredness of their female bodies, and possibly heal from damaging and even traumatic experiences regarding their femininity and sexuality. It draws on Turner's influential view on ritual as a liminal space in order to account for the transformative potential of these workshops. Specifically, it applies Hinton and Kirmayer's flexibility hypothesis, which suggests that healing rituals shift people's mode of being-in-the-world, including their cognitive, emotional, and physical state or stance, towards openness to new ways of being. First, it highlights different ontological domains where shifts took place, notably somatic state, self-image and relationality. Subsequently, it identifies the main modalities that were used for enabling transformation: the embodiment of the metaphor of the goddess/the divine as present in each woman and the use of intimate, loving touch and meditative awareness. The process of transformation and healing elucidated in this way engaged the physical, emotional and cognitive levels as interacting dimensions, relying foremost on the activation of a vital energy that both gave participants a deep sense of self and connected beyond the self. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Social & Cultural Geography is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper is a synoptic history of racial geography in the 'fifth part of the world' or Oceania — an extended region embracing what are now Australia, Island Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, Aotearoa/New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. The period in question stretches from classical antiquity to the Enlightenment, to focus on the consolidation of European racial thinking with the marriage of geography and raciology in the early 19th century. The paper investigates the naming of places by Europeans and its ultimate entanglement with their racial classifications of people. The formulation of geographical and anthropological knowledge is located at the interface of metropolitan discourses and local experience. This necessitates unpacking the relationships between, on the one hand, the deductive reasoning of metropolitan savants, and, on the other hand, the empirical logic of voyagers and settlers who had visited or lived in particular places, encountered their inhabitants, and been exposed, often unwittingly, to indigenous agency and knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers a socio-literary investigation of the East African Asian diasporic experience. To this end, it closely examines selected texts that offer insights into the complicated socio-cultural relationships at the interstices of the colonial histories of the Indian subcontinent, Africa and Europe. It also looks at how gendered participation is articulated from within the larger body of a collective history. Finally, the paper reviews steps taken by contemporary Asian-Africans to take stock of their shared past, as a part of larger political project for the recognition of a hitherto minoritised group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a selective consideration of the scene of the establishment of the first school in New Zealand in 1816. By foregrounding the possible views of the indigenous (Maori) people about schooling, the authors show that the promise of schooling was impossible to fulfil. Our argument is that the first teacher(s)' refusal to learn from the people they intended to teach ensured that a proper educational relationship between Maori and European could never be established. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines changes in American ethnic groups' sentiments toward various European, Asian, African, and American countries. While the bivariate results suggest high levels of agreement among Americans about which foreign nations they like and dislike, the multivariate results indicate little consensus among ethnic group concerning which alien nations are viewed favorably and unfavorably. American ethnic group hold varied opinions toward foreign countries depending on historical period and cultural similarities between the homelands of the group in question. Results are most consistent with a "group conflict" perspective, as there are also variations in affect and animus toward nations which occurs along racial lines, with non-European ancestry groups being more favorably disposed toward "non-Western" nations than are their European ancestry group counterparts. Finally, the data show that correlates of tolerance such as education, income, age, region, political ideology, gender urbanicity, and religion lead to favorable sentiments toward some countries while leading to negative sentiments toward others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International migration contributes to increasing cultural diversity in many European cities. Historically, migration studies have focused on the integration of immigrants foregrounding race/ethnicity and identity issues, limiting our understanding of intercultural diversity. A new paradigm focusing on relational patterns among groups is emerging, highlighting the importance of mutual relations, interactions and influences among residents of different origins and backgrounds, including the experience of both immigrants and autochthonous populations. The notions of superdiversity and conviviality have significantly contributed to this debate. This paper discusses how both were methodologically operationalized in multi-sited ethnographies carried out in Lisbon and Granada, during 2009–2012. Superdiversity and conviviality are the main theoretical frameworks used to understand how interculturality is lived and experienced at the local level. We reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, unpacking common assumptions about race, ethnicity and culture, specifically looking at the negotiation of difference in intercultural events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What Western academic literature described as ethnic or cultural Tibet in fact implies something composite and processually constructed: Tibet then often appears as a typical example for explanations of collective identity (and ethnicity). Such approaches increasingly are applied in present-day anthropology and historical studies, highlighting the historical conditions and the politically, socially and ideationally constructed features of identity. In Tibet, identity-building was strongly related to the spread of Buddhism. The new religion was introduced in the time of the Tibetan Empire (seventh to ninth century), but it was only its later spread (from the eleventh century) that led to the effective, all-embracing establishment of Buddhism in the Highlands. It was interlinked with regionally different forms of political manifestations—the founding of Buddhist kingdoms at the periphery and the emergence of monastic hegemonies in the central regions. These developments correlated with processes of conversion, which in its narrative model is described as an act of conquest, taming and civilizing the physical universe and which in theory actually never ends. Apart from considering current anthropological discussions of the phenomenon of religious conversion, this paper will include a comparative view of the history of Christianization in early medieval Europe (especially in Western Europe—the Frankish kingdom and the barbarian zones North of the Rhine and the Danube, fifth to tenth century). Inter alia this also raises questions about the initial social forces and interests promoting the new religion's adoption, and to what extent formal similarities with the Tibetan case are ascertainable in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artur Hazelius (1833–1901), founder of the Nordiska Museet and the Skansen Open-Air Museum, was a pioneering figure in the practice of ethnographic display in Europe. Hazelius achieved Europe-wide recognition following his presentation of Swedish and Scandinavian peasant ethnography at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1878, where his displays were reviewed positively in the international press. This paper argues that the significance of the Hazelian ethnographic project was embedded in overlapping contextual frames with centres in Stockholm and Paris. If the displays most readily spoke to a general concern with the decline of traditional life as rooted in the countryside, they arguably took on other, different and occasionally conflicting meanings as they were moved from one exhibitionary context to another. Whereas in Stockholm the ethnographic displays were inscribed in the conciliatory rhetoric of Scandinavism, the exhibitionary setting of the exposition universelle imposed an interpretative frame defined by the logic of a competitive nationalism. For Nordic audiences, the scenes reflected the positive historical significance of the peasantry in the unfolding narrative of Scandinavian political modernity; for the French audience, however, those same scenes were either applauded for their life-likeness or seen as reflective of the ethnographic richness of the ‘kingdom of Sweden’. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Has racial thinking always existed? Have human populations always organized and delineated difference through racial categories? This paper argues that race and racism are the products of nineteenth century European thought wherein radically new conceptions of time permitted new ways of articulating and classifying difference. It was possible for race to become the organizing principle around which to delineate human variation at that moment when the singularity of human time was shattered into multiple temporalities. It is when man's origin comes to be pluralized (the origins of men) that the modern category of race is born and the modern prejudice of racism finds expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most research on migrants examines what makes them ill. Inspired by Antonovsky's salutogenic approach, this study shifts the perspective and asks why migrants stay healthy. At the centre of interest are sub-Saharan Africans living in Switzerland who consider themselves and/or are considered by others as mastering problems affecting their health. The mixed Swiss-African research team explored meanings of health and resilience in 20 case studies in Zurich and Basel and five group discussions in Bern, Biel and Geneva. The data show that migrants with resilient trajectories have a dynamic and multi-dimensional understanding of health. Moreover, they have learnt to interpret difficulties as 'stress': a popular illness concept in Switzerland and Europe but less known in their home countries. The paper argues that resilience is closely related with the appropriation of 'stress' as an illness concept: it not only gives meaning and helps to explain diffuse symptoms of ill-health, it also offers an agenda for action and contributes to their feeling of social belonging in the host country. These findings have important implications for policy and practice in the rapidly changing field of migration and health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An ever more Pacific-looking past of Britain and other parts of Europe is being constructed by archaeologists. Melanesian anthropology is being continually mined for supposed ethnographic parallels to elucidate the European Neolithic with its 'Big Man' societies and 'dividual' individuals. Although this Melanesian turn in European archaeology is fuelled by a detailed poring over of the minutiae of Pacific and other Third and Fourth World ethnographies, it manages to ignore totally the results of the archaeology of these ethnography-rich regions. This paper discusses the long-term commentary provided by archaeology on the short-term vision provided by the ethnography of Melanesia. It questions the appropriateness of much of the use of analogy by archaeologists in the face of population declines in much of Melanesia in the recent past by something like 90 per cent of pre-contact figures and in the face of evidence that the classic 'Big Man' style of leadership in that region is arguably as modern a creation as the Welfare State, and is a social form possible only under conditions of colonialist pacification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across Europe and the western world debates on multiculturalism are shaping national and local policies on citizenship. How to reconcile the tensions between minority rights, cultural difference and the universal notion of citizenship in different nation states has become a central focus when considering how the inclusion of ethnic minority groups is being managed. At the heart of these discussions are concerns about the young and the processes of their inclusion as present and future citizens. In this paper we discuss how citizenship for young people from different ethnic groups is understood and constructed as a 'problem' in the UK, showing how issues of injustice, lack of recognition and problems of self-determination impact on feelings of membership and belonging. In the final section we discuss possible policy solutions and ways forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This survey focuses on food history writing on nineteenth and twentieth-century Europe, by using a selection of book introductions, colloquium papers, critical reviews, and papers from specialized journals. It provides a chronological survey that starts in the 1980s, and ends with recent trends. It explores tensions between socioeconomic traditions and ethnological approaches, looks for the cultural, linguistic and other turns, and puts forward as a promising field of study the integrated approach of the food chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper explores the notion of Europeanism, asking the question: what does it mean to be a European? In much the same terms as in Michael Walzer's often-cited essay 'What does it mean to be an American?', Walzer's analysis will serve as a point of departure for a discussion of different conceptions of European self-understanding. Some points of contrast will be made between American hyphenated identities and European identity, conceived of in terms of a notion of cosmopolitanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While states around the world have responded to mass mobility by increasing border policing, our knowledge of the daily reality of that form of policing remains limited. How migrant women are policed has been particularly neglected. The political and practical difficulty of examining the context, process and experience of border control practices appears often to be insurmountable. This article contributes to filling some of the gaps in our knowledge by drawing on ethnographic data collected over a 12-month period in Greek immigration detention centres from 2011 to 2012. In it we examine the experience of policing and irregular entry across the Greek Turkey border - an entry-point to Europe that is routinely regarded as being in crisis. As we will demonstrate, border policing at this site is capricious and unpredictable. It is also highly racialised and gendered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on informal aspects of the post-communist economy and political institutions has developed rapidly since the collapse of the Soviet Union. While there is no lack in research on informal practices in Russia and other Eastern European countries, comprehensive empirical investigations of informality in peripheral regions of the former Soviet Union—such as the Caucasus and Central Asia—are still rare. This article aims to fill this gap by providing an evidence-based empirical account of informal practices in post-Soviet Azerbaijan. Drawing its empirical data from a two-decade-long ethnographic participant observation carried out in various locales of Azerbaijan’s capital, Baku, this study offers nuanced insights into the hitherto unexplored informal practice oftapsh. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article focuses on how the economic crisis in Southern Europe has stimulated temporal thought (temporality), whether tilted in the direction of historicizing, presentifying, or futural thought, provoking people to rethink their relationship to time. The argument is developed with particular reference to the ethnographies of living with austerity inside the eurozone contained in this special issue. The studies identify the ways the past may be activated, lived, embodied, and re-fashioned under contracting economic horizons. We argue for the empirical study of crisis that captures the decisions or non-decisions that people make, and the actual temporal processes by which they judge responses. We conclude that modern linear historicism is often overridden in such moments by other historicities, showing that in crises, not only time, but history itself as an organizing structure and set of expectations, is up for grabs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article is a result of field studies on the transformations of multicultural heritage in the east-central European cities of Cracow, Wrocław, Lviv and Chernivtsi. In all these cities, a majority of the pre-war populations (and in Wrocław, practically all pre-war residents) disappeared as a result of WWII. After decades of silence imposed by the ruling communist elites, collective memories of the post-war populations are now surfacing in public discourse. Precisely how the contemporary populations living in the zones of ‘dismembered multiethnicity’ approach the past's cultural diversity in the everyday life remains, however, an underinvestigated topic. Under these circumstances, ethnography proves to be an innovative methodological approach particularly suited to studying local expressions of transnational memory. Based on the methodological approach of multi-sited ethnography, the article examines thematic restaurants which allude to cultures of some perished ethnic groups (in particular, Jews, Poles and Germans). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this review, I examine the contribution of social anthropology to the study of risk. I define social anthropology as the study of ‘other cultures’ and note that such studies have a long history, for example the Greeks and Romans were interested in exploring and understanding ‘barbarians’ and using such studies to reflect on their own society. However, in the early twentieth century, with the Cambridge Expedition to the Torres Straits and Malinowski’s fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands, the study of other cultures shifted from an assumption of western cultural superiority to respect for other cultures with anthropologists seeking to understand and explain the unique logic and rationality of different cultures. This new approach to other cultures tended to stress the universality of the challenges which societies face while documenting their unique responses. Thus, all societies have to cope with uncertainty, the essential unpredictability of the future and account for past misfortunes. In western societies, risk now plays a central role in making the future more predictable and manageable and enabling the forensic investigation of the past. For example, in the area of health, epidemiologists map the incidence of disease and their spatial, temporal and social distribution providing a way of predicting and preventing future incidence. In other cultures, various forms of divination and ritual activity perform the same function. For example, Malinowski identified the importance of dangerous long sea journeys for the Trobriand Islanders and examined the ways in which they sought to deal with these dangers through a combination of technical skill and magic. Douglas used historical and anthropological evidence to develop a cultural theory of risk. She argued that the nature of social relations in a group influenced which hazards that group chose to highlight and sought to counteract, and how they chose to do this. Although it is possible to identify issues of risk and uncertainty in anthropological studies, it has not been a central or major theme and the contribution of anthropology to risk studies has been more limited than the contribution of disciplines such as sociology and psychology. Part of the problem relates to globalisation. The development of anthropology as a mature discipline at the end of the nineteenth century, one which respected other cultures, coincided with the peak of European colonisation. While social anthropologists wanted to explore and understand ‘pristine’ pre-modern cultures, the reality was that these cultures were already being reshaped by European institutions such as hospitals and medicine. In terms of uncertainty, this means that pre-modern systems of predicting and managing the future, such as oracle and magic, coexist and compete with global systems such as risk-based medicine. It is possible to recover and reconstruct such pre-modern systems by using historical sources. However, most contemporary ethnographies must take into account competing systems and how individuals choose and move between them. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article discusses the social life and folk customs of the Seto people in Setomaa, Estonia, including their putative cultural hegemony. The author describes the Setomaa region as a heterotopia, or a place of otherness that offers an alternative to everyday life. An overview of Seto parties, including the singing and folk costumes involved, is provided. An overview of the relationship between authentic Seto culture and the performance of culture for heritage tourists in Estonia is also provided.

Through an ethnographic account of a pan-European activist campaign against software patents, I investigate how European identities emerge through contention rather than consensus. I apply anthropological literature on Europeanization and on intellectual property rights in order to rethink conventional theories about the relationship between European integration and the formation of European identity. I develop the term 'contentious Europeanization' to denote a set of identities and approaches to Europe that are intimately linked to EU policy-making, yet purport to develop an alternative Europe. More broadly, I argue that information technology and intellectual property law operate as frameworks for the formation of contentious political subjectivities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Miscarriage, a common event in the early stages of pregnancy, has been associated with clinical levels of anxiety and depression. Most of the evidence describing what is helpful for women in their journey through miscarriage has been conducted in the UK. As the Australian health care system is somewhat different, this study uses qualitative methods to examine whether Australian women face different challenges when coping with miscarriage. Semi-structured interviews with 9 women (aged 35-42; M=37 years), who had experienced miscarriages in the previous 2 years, were conducted, and a thematic analysis carried out. Engagement, acknowledgement and support from families, health care providers and the community were positive aspects for women after miscarriage. Unfortunately, the medical management of miscarriage was often described as poor. A lack of information received, in combination with insensitive comments and lack of empathy while being treated in hospital, were very negative aspects of women's miscarriage experiences. Our findings are consistent with similar research conducted in the UK. A multi-level approach to miscarriage which involves support and education for women, their families, and health care professionals may help minimise the extent of women's distress after miscarriage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years new cross-European protests and movements have developed on global justice and within the loose platform of the European Social Forum (ESF). One of the major challenges for transnational communication and grassroots democracy within the Social Forums is linguistic communication problems and the 'work of translation' required to create a democratic setting. In the willingness to provide open access beyond linguistic communication problems, activists and organizers involved in the ESF preparatory process therefore hold their regular European preparatory assemblies to the ESF summits within a multilingual setting. Given the potential challenges of working transnationally, and of multilingual meetings, the ESF provides a good case study to test whether such processes work effectively in practice in comparison with national social movement assemblies: to what extent is democratic discussion and decision making possible in such emerging multilingual meetings compared to national meetings in which the majority of participants speak the same language? Being interested in linking the theoretical ground of discourse and deliberative democracy to the subject of the emerging Social Forums, I have studied the extent to which democratic discussion in the sense of deliberative debate might or might not take place within the multilingual and Europe-wide preparatory assemblies in the ESF process. The findings of my comparison between Europe-wide Social Forum preparatory assemblies and those taking place at the national level in Germany and the UK show that the absence of one common language within the European assemblies, contrary to what one might intuitively suppose, does not reduce the quality of democratic deliberation as compared to the national context. Therefore, informal power structures and gatekeeping mechanisms frequently rooted at the national level of Social Forum processes, together with a lack of transparency and asymmetries of information, seem to have indirectly reduced the accessibility of European meetings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an analysis on the impact of the prevalence of ethnic group protection discourses in Europe, particularly on the public representation of the people identified as "Roma." Ethnic minority rights discourses has a impact for the practice of representing the Roma. Exhibitions of the Roma as an ethnic minority is an effect of the existing politicisation and public resonance.

The study explored feelings of European identity and attitudes towards Europe manifested in two groups within the British population: the indigenous white British population (N = 58) and the South-Asian ethnic minority (N = 44). A social survey approach was used with scales to evaluate British, European and ethnic identities and also attitudes towards Europe. Perceived compatibility of identities was also assessed using a visual representation of identities task. Previous research findings were confirmed with the indigenous white British respondents, who displayed a strong sense of national identity negatively correlated with European identity. In contrast, the South Asian respondents displayed positive feelings of identification on all three levels, and a British identity that correlated positively with European identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines what race has meant in and to Europe. If Europe has different, if related, histories of racial thinking, expression, imposition, and exclusion, how has it been shaped, in part, as specific region in the figure of race even as race, in the aftermath of World War II, is largely denied as a category applicable to human groups? And what today does Europe as a region, and the societies constituting it with all their internal variations, contribute, especially in the popular imaginary, to the extensions of racial meanings and to thinking critically about the racial ordering of social structure, racist exclusions, and social markings? This study is concerned with mapping the racial contours of contemporary European self-conception, historically understood, tracing the figures in the European imaginary of the European, the black, the Jew, and the Muslim. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses issues on how to recognize the Vlah people or the Wallachians, usually known as "gastarbeiter," in the way they deal with globalization processes and their specific reaction to Western culture in Europe. History of the name "Vlah"; Characteristics of the Wallachians; Analysis of Bratic and Malesevic regarding the houses built by the Wallachians.

The structure of northwestern European societies overseas had more to do with the nature of access to land in colonial settings than with the particular backgrounds of emigrating Europeans. The crucial European inheritance -a strong sense of the nuclear family supported by a desire for the private control of land-was common to most northwestern Europeans. When these assumptions were introduced to areas where land was cheap and markets were poor, as in early Canada, South Africa, and New England, remarkably homogeneous and egalitarian rural societies of subsistent farmers emerged quickly. Regional differences in the settlers' collective background were lost in a process of simplification and generalization. Similar farms and farmhouses spread across the landscape, the reflection but also substantially the cause of the simple societies that inhabited them. When access to land was restricted, society quickly restratified. Even in the nineteenth century most newly settled rural areas went through this cycle in some form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article cites a study which focuses on the race attitudes of a dominated group. Dominative behaviour is delined as the technique of responding to others by which a person resists differences, resists change and growth. This study is concerned exclusively with the professional African. In spite of the widely varying backgrounds revealed in this study, the Africans have all converged upon the same goal. The African is not without considerable psychological resources of his own when called upon to deal with the situation created for him by the dominative behaviour of the European. His awareness of group-belongingness makes it possible for him as an individual to confront the situation secure in the knowledge that his group provides him with a ground on which he can take his stand. His awareness of group-apartness enables him to bring into play all those powerful social attitudes that maintain the distinct identity of the in-group while challenging the pretensions of the out-group. His awareness of a group heritage and a group tradition, however over-evaluated, sentimentalized and distorted they may be, provides him with a set of cultural values in which he can take a pride and which he does not owe to the European.