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The issue of municipal solid waste (MSW) arisings has received great attention recently since it is not only a by-product of economic activity but also serves as an input to the economy through material or energy recovery. The main focus of this study is cultural formation and especially the current picture of waste culture and public perception across European Union (EU) member states. Thus, this study will first evaluate environmental efficiency with data envelopment analysis (DEA) based on five parameters: waste, gross domestic product (GDP), labour, capital, and population density for 22 EU Member States and for the years 2005, 2010 and 2015 in order to evaluate which Member States are more efficient. Then the efficiency results are contrasted to Hofstede's and Schwartz's cultural dimensions on STATA with the use of regression modelling. Results show that for year 2005 no significant relationship is noticed for both cultural models, whereas for years 2010 and 2015 there appears to be a significant connection. The above-mentioned findings can be associated with the financial crisis that has hit Europe after 2008 making people more sceptical, while EU legislations have laid out some important directives in the field of waste management. Finally, along with the factors above, EU has faced severe environmental challenges due to waste arisings, as well as accidents and injuries for people working in this sector, which in turn have widely modified EU's waste culture as supported by this study's results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European legislation implies the use of marginal social cost pricing in rail access charges levied on rail operators. Thus, they may include specific environmental charges to internalise the impacts of rail transport. However, when applying these principles in practice, several difficulties call for second-best settings adapted to the particularities of the rail market. In this context, few European railway administrations are already implementing rail access charges with an environmental dimension. This paper reviews the literature on the issue and assesses the current European experience in noise and air pollution rail charges. For this purpose, an analytical framework is built on the definition of four basic dimensions: charging approach, allocation of abatement efforts, degree of differentiation and intermodal approach. The qualitative examination of the existing systems suggests that the level of environmental surcharges can be generally increased given the low substitutability between rail and road and that the range of abatement possibilities should be enlarged by further differentiating charges. It is also found that the pricing scope should be adapted to achieve particular cost-efficient allocations of abatement efforts among rail operators and upstream agents. Finally, further research requirements for a quantitative assessment are defined. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Land taken by artificial surfaces has an impact on the quality of life and ecosystems. To reduce possible negative impacts of land take, the European Commission proposed setting a milestone objective for 2020 in terms of future rates of land take. This paper describes a methodology to model the impacts of the 2020 land-take milestone proposed in the RERM in the European Union 27 MS. An integrated modelling framework was configured to assess the spatial impact of two land-take scenarios: a ‘Reference’ scenario, which is driven by demographic and economic trends, and a ‘Target 0’ scenario that follows the 2020 land-take milestone proposed in the RERM. We conclude that the implementation of the 2020 land-take milestone, by reducing future land take in Europe, will foster more efficient use of land (less land taken for the same activity levels) and minimise negative impacts on non-artificial land uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental policy emerged as a new European and global policy field within a very brief period of time during the early 1970s. Notably in Europe, international organizations played a central role in defining core principles for this new policy domain. This article argues that inter-organizational connections were crucial in this context: the exchange and transfer of policy ideas facilitated the rise of environmental policy across different international organizations. Focusing on the co-evolution of the polluter-pays principle enshrined almost simultaneously both at the OECD and the European Communities, the article assesses the multiple routes along which policy ideas travelled, the role inter-organizational competition played and the selective nature of transfers. While expertise played a key role in determining which policy concepts were selected, institutional conditions and the politics of the recipient institution determined how they were adapted to the respective new context. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A growing number of cities around the world have taken advantage of their green image of the purpose of place branding. In the research literature, it is suggested that these practices are motivated by place-based competition over financial and social capital, combined with more holistic motives of sustainable urban development. However, although an increasing number of green cities are engaged in place branding, few studies have researched the impact of place branding on environmental policy-making in a city, building up to the question: how is local environmental policy-making affected by green place branding? Addressing this issue, this paper critically investigates how the continuity of local environmental policy-making is affected by place-branding practices. To tackle this task, the paper firstly develops an analytical framework aiming to understand how green cities emerge and become famous based on their policy-making. Secondly, using that framework, this paper present an in-depth case study of a city branding itself as the 'Greenest City in Europe'. Drawing on the growing body of work on green cities, this paper investigates the 'understudied' practice of using policy for the purpose of place branding as well as the impact of place branding 'on the environment'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public demand for environmental policies can only influence policies when political parties incorporate environmentalism into their platforms. The economic downturn that began in 2009 may have caused European parties to abandon their commitment to environmentalism as they focused on solutions to the economic crisis. Particularly in Central and Eastern Europe, where commitment to the environment is not as central to party competition, public environmental concerns may have been placed on the periphery of the policy agenda. Examining this issue, this study finds that political parties, especially mainstream parties, in Western Europe represented economic and environmental preferences of voters about equally as well in 2013 as they did prior to the economic crisis. However, in Central and Eastern Europe, parties tended to be less responsive to environmental preferences, presumably because economic differences dominate political divisions in newer democracies. It is concluded that environmental interests are well protected by mainstream actors in the West, though less so in Europe’s newer democracies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The causal processes that shape the emergence of environmental attitudes in post-Communist Europe are examined. We describe the widening gap in environmental policy orientations between West and East, and then cite two factors to explain the lower support for environmentalism in this region: first, citizens still evaluate environmental issues through a distinctive ideological lens carried over from the Communist era; and, second, they do not connect environmental issues to other (more salient) economic and political questions in a consistent way. Using the three waves of the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) environmental module, these questions are explored with individual-level and multilevel models. It is concluded that the post-Communist effect is unlikely to disappear until environmental issues comprise a component of citizens’ ideological orientations and the programmes of political parties. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study examines the effect of tourism arrival (TOR) on carbon dioxide emissions from the transportation sector (TCO2). The panel methodology techniques were utilized to analyse the data which included statistics from 48 top international tourism destinations. The results in general show that TORs have a significant impact on the TCO2in all the selected countries with the exception of the European countries. The insignificant impact of TOR on TCO2in the European countries is due to the strict environmental regulations. Therefore, implementation of regulations similar to that of the European countries is recommended for the other countries to limit the pollution from the transportation sector that is caused by international TOR. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Using an analytical framework based on current implementation theory, this research examines the transposition of the EU Waste Framework Directive into UK law and local government development control procedures. The study which forms the basis of this paper was commissioned by the UK Government to evaluate the effectiveness of the construction Waste Management Plans introduced as a legal requirement in 2008. It was found that its implementation had largely failed and that these new laws had been ineffective. Subsequently, in March 2012 the UK Government announced its intention to withdraw these Regulations. In the context of current deregulatory pressures, but with the continuing need to minimise construction waste, this research concludes that more attention should be paid by central government to their current ‘top-down’ implementation procedures in order to better roll-out new environmental legislation in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2009, Siemens (Germany) sponsored the research by the Economist Intelligence Unit (London), which resulted in the publication of the European Green City Index report, in which the environmental performance of 30 large cities in Europe was analysed. It provided city administrations with an idea of where they stoodvis-à-vistheir European counterparts. However, while adopting such performance evaluation methodologies, it is important to set targets and goals, and to be aware of pitfalls that may exist in the course of a blind pursuit of a higher Green Score. City administrations are usually segmented into different divisions and departments; often each division strives towards its own set of targets and goals, without being aware (or without being concerned, even if it is aware) of the overlaps, conflicts and synergies that may exist with the targets and goals of the others. The Green City Index needs to be considered together with an Urban Socio-Economic Index, which can be suitably structured with the inter-linkages with the indicators of the Green City Index explicitly described. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article considers the role of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), the generally accepted information and beliefs of a specific society about its environmental conditions and ecosystem use, in environmental policy formation in Europe. A relative lack of research on TEK within European rural communities is noted. Forestry management is among the examples cited of an environmental issue in which TEK could implement sustainable resource management.

This review discusses high impact research in sustainable urban and land management. The focus is on large European projects that have a holistic and multi-disciplinary assessment approach towards the total environment. This paper clearly indicates that many projects propose decision-making tools partly supported by numerical models. Successful projects were identified as applying the following criteria: a communicative and holistic approach involving economic, environmental and social sciences throughout the project; sufficient geographic coverage; engagement of stakeholders from a wide variety of sectors; and plans for dissemination of project outcomes and active knowledge sharing. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Expansion of territories targeted by travellers and growth of attendance rates make tourism sector of significant interest for the implementation of policies on environmental protection at the European Union (EU) level. The need to protect local natural heritage, to integrate tourism industry development policies with the ones pertaining to other sectors that characterize a given territory and to enhance the overall environmental performance are some of the priorities that may appear conflicting at times. This paper discusses a method of analysis and planning aiming to promote potential directives of local governance. This method, representing the outcome of a process coordinated and shared across territories, is oriented towards the sustainable development of the area and refers to the implementation of integrated policies, The Interreg Eco Tourism (INTER.ECO.TUR) project, co-financed by the European Commission under the EU's INTERREG IIIC, provided the research with a useful case study to analyse the dynamics of sustainable tourism development within the European Mediterranean area. The debate of its results offers evidences on the possibility to develop such a governance process effectively, providing insight into an assessment methodology enriched by a clear-cut analysis of its applied experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper assesses technical performance in the water industry in the Southern European region of Andalusia, while accounting for sustainability in the management of water. This allows the opportunity cost of producing sustainability to be evaluated. Given the low cost of raw water in Spain in relation to the estimated opportunity cost of saving this natural resource, wasting water becomes a profitable strategy for utility managers from a private perspective. However, this managerial strategy has a huge social cost in an area of Europe where the sustainable management of water is a pressing need. The conclusion is that environmental policy aimed at discouraging this wasteful behaviour is urgently needed. For this reason, a suitable mix of environmental taxes on water abstraction and institutional reforms is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth of international trade is increasing the separation between the location of consumption and the location of production and emissions. As a consequence of this growth, GHG emissions reported on a territorial basis can differ markedly from the global emissions required to produce the products consumed in a region. An overview is provided of emissions embodied in international trade, including an assessment of the role of both intermediate and final goods, and the impact that these flows have on territorial emissions. The global flows of embodied emissions driven by the EU consumption of aluminium are then examined in the context of the planned extension of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which is to include emissions from aluminium production from 2013 onwards. At the aggregate level, it is found that only around one-third of embodied CO2 emissions in aluminium consumed in Europe are subject to a cost of CO2 under the EU ETS, although this may vary for individual products or producers. The data and analysis presented on the international flows of emissions embodied in aluminium are relevant for evaluation of mitigation options for the European consumption of aluminium and other emissions-intensive sectors. Although the method is robust, the analysis can be made more policy relevant and specific with more disaggregated data sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More and more scholars are revisiting federal theories in an attempt to explain the functioning of the EU. Yet in-depth empirical testing of their claims remains surprisingly limited. Cooperative federalism represents one particularly promising variant of federal theory in this respect. This article extends and refines existing claims about its utility to show how EU policy-making can be fruitfully conceived of as a multi-level 'cooperative game' played out between different actor coalitions. It then uses these arguments to analyse task allocation - a critical indicator of the European integration process - within the environmental sector. Drawing on fresh empirical evidence, it demonstrates how differential patterns of task allocation have emerged from a series of interlinked 'cooperative' dynamics, which were in turn shaped by broader federal structures. Although greater testing and development is needed, it concludes that there are good reasons to add cooperative federalism to the evolving 'tool-kit' of EU integration theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The link between European environmental policies and spatial planning and decision-making in Member States is complicated and the subject of much debate among students of the European Union and the processes of Europeanization. This paper focus on policy meaning, and analyses the mechanisms of divergence and convergence that are at work in planning and decision-making practices in which the Birds and Habitats Directives are implemented. While many of the mechanisms are unconscious and unintentional and thus cannot be affected, others can be used intentional and strategically during the formulation and implementation of the policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An integrated approach to environmental policy and urban spatial planning has not yet been adopted by many local administrations in Europe. However, such integration is likely to provide a more streamlined planning process that incorporates environmental measures in the physical development of urban areas. In this paper, we argue that among many local governments there is already a growing wish to apply environmental policy integration (EPI) principles in spatial planning in an effort to achieve better quality of life in the cities and to preserve natural resources. Within Europe, most attempts to develop EPI approaches can be found in western countries, while efforts to find integrated approaches to the urban environment and spatial planning in Eastern Europe are in their infancy. The main reason for this is that most of the post-communist countries are still addressing the challenge of reconstructing their political, social, and economic systems. In this research, we analyse and compare policy practices for EPI in urban planning in the Netherlands and Bulgaria. We first discuss the Dutch area-oriented policy approach, which has gained popularity during the last decade as a means of integrating environmental qualities in urban land use plans. We then go on to analyse the effectiveness of specific area-oriented methods developed and applied in Rotterdam, and define their applicability in the planning practice of the local authorities of the city of Burgas in Bulgaria. The main conclusion of the study is that the degree of effectiveness of an area-oriented policy is dependent on the impact of specific success factors. Despite the differences between Rotterdam and Burgas in terms of the presence of these success factors, we assert that the area-oriented policy approach applied in Rotterdam can be transferable, and can be adapted to the specific local circumstances in Burgas and used as an instrument for integrating EPI into urban land use planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Political feasibility (or infeasibility) is often associated with target-group support (or opposition) of specific policy alternatives. We argue that target-groups' capacity to influence the spectrum of politically feasible policy options tends to be higher when (1) target groups control resources needed by decision-makers, that (2) are agenda-setters and/or veto players in the decision-making process. In the 2008 revision of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) exemptions from the basic principle of full auctioning of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions allowances can all be traced to target-group interest representation by single veto players or blocking minorities in the European Council and the Council of Ministers. Our analysis indicates that target groups succeeded in constraining the spectrum of politically feasible policy options to the extent that their positions were unified and threats to shut down or relocate activity were perceived to be relevant, severe and credible. Our findings confirm both the significance and the limits of portfolio assignment in the Commission. Even with Directorate General (DG) Environment in an agenda-setting role, target groups acquired exemptions through their relations with veto players in the Council. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent changes in European agri-environmental policy allow farmers' transaction costs (TCs), also called private TCs, to be taken into account when calculating compensation payments for agri-environmental schemes (AESs). This gives rise to questions as to the significance of these costs and the methodologies used to measure them. In this paper, private TCs are measured and analysed using two methodologies: (1) through a survey of general perceptions of TCs and (2) through a one-year registration system for monitoring labour hours, operational and administrative costs and differences in revenue between a parcel of land in an AES and a comparable area of land not in a comparable scheme. The results obtained with both methodologies show that private TCs are significant and not to be underestimated. They represent about 15% of the total AES-related costs and about 25% of the compensation payment. The most important cost factor resulting from an AES-uptake is the income foregone which represents more than 50% of the total costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the report "Sustaining Europe for a Long Way Ahead: Making Long-Term Sustainable Development Policies Work," by the Network of European Environmental and Sustainable Development Advisory Councils (EEAC) during its annual meeting in October 2008. The statement's aim is to evaluate how well various aspects of societies and economies plan, adapt, think, and assess actions for sustainable projects. Topics include a definition of sustainable development, as defined by the EEAC, the relationship between governance, social justice, and budgets in promoting sustainability in European Union (EU) countries, and the availability of markets that offer long-term sustainability for humanity. Also discussed is the role culture, demography, and localism play in sustainability.

In the EU there is a trend towards developing informal networks between the European Commission and national regulatory agencies. Changes in character of the states' public administrations serve as a background for understanding these developments, a distinctive feature being the 'agencification' of the administrative apparatus during the last decades. This article focuses on how the role of the European Commission can be understood within these networks. The main finding is that the Commission is playing a proactive role, able to use the networks as a back road to the informal harmonization of regulatory practices. It is argued that it is able to do this mainly because it is perceived as a credible institution with expertise and overview, assets that have become even more important in EU-27. It is argued further that the influence of the Commission is conditioned by certain factors at the national level, such as 'noviceness' and 'administrative capacity'. It is concluded that it is necessary to take into account institutional features both at the national and European levels in order to understand the multifaceted role of the Commission within this specific institutional setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Widely advocated as a means to make policy making more integrated, policy assessment remains weakly integrated in practice. But explanations for this shortfall, such as lack of staff training and resources, ignore more fundamental institutional factors. This paper identifies institutional capacities supporting and constraining attempts to make policy assessment more integrated. A comparative empirical analysis of functionally equivalent assessment systems in four European jurisdictions finds that there are wide-ranging institutional constraints upon integration. These include international policy commitments, the perception that assessment should support rather than determine policy, organisational traditions, and the sectorisation of policy making. This paper concludes by exploring the potential for altering these institutions to make policy assessment more integrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution has been one of the main ways of protecting the environment in Europe from air pollution. This convention has successfully bridged different political systems even through times of political change, and is a prime example of what can be achieved through intergovernmental cooperation. Through creating an effective framework for controlling and reducing the damage to human health and the environment from transboundary air pollution, this convention has proved successful. This article considers the development of the convention and its work on adverse air pollution effects, in particular on activities related to quantifying effects on human health as carried out by the convention's joint (with WHO) Task Force on the Health Effects of Air Pollution (Task Force on Health), and concludes with some indications of the convention's future priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes the WHO Air Quality Guidelines and highlights two projects that were initiated to update the risk assessment of the main air pollutants: "Systematic Review of Health Aspects of Air Quality in Europe" and the "Global Update of WHO Air Quality Guidelines." The report of the Systematic Review emphasizes that the accumulated evidence is sufficient to require actions reducing the health impacts of air pollution in Europe. The global update of the air quality guidelines focuses on particulate matter (PM), ozone, NO2, and SO2 and addresses issues associated with the practical feasibility of attaining the guidelines in developing countries. The article illustrates WHO's activities toward gathering the best available international scientific evidence to support air quality policy development in all regions of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency recently became a cornerstone of the European energy policies. A particular mechanism is emerging, namely white certificates. Such certificates attest to the energy efficiency of a product or service according to predefined baselines and targets. White certificates are currently being used in Italy, the United Kingdom and France, while the European Directive on Energy End-Use Efficiency and Energy Services is considering them as a possible remedy to improve security of supply, energy efficiency, environmental protection, economic competitiveness and social cohesion. This article aims accordingly to analyse the potential for a European-wide white certificates scheme, having due regard to the European framework, national experiences and international trade law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses the emergence of the EU maritime safety policy in the context of neoinstitutional perspectives. The focus is on the interactions between private interests, national governments and supranational institutions through the transformation of this issue–area from a least promising candidate for policy Europeanisation to one of the four pillars of the collective European maritime strategy. The study concludes that, within a context of unprecedented economic internationalisation, the dynamisms of the norms, rules and political institutions of the EU have a critical role to play in persuading key political actors to endorse the expansion of the European policy dimension. Taking advantage of the inefficiencies of pre–existing policies, the EU political institutions, principally the Commission, and their ideas have advanced policy initiatives and shaped policy details. The content, timing, and momentum of these institutions’ actions, the path opened by distinctive EU developments and the norms of the decision–making process have contributed in taking on board national governments and locked–in private actors of different economic importance that had longed argued against regional solutions of maritime safety problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European emissions trading scheme (EU ETS) has an efficient and effective market design that risks being undermined by three interrelated problems: the approach to allocation; the absence of a credible commitment to post-2012 continuation; and concerns about its impact on the international competitiveness of key sectors. This special issue of Climate Policy explores these three factors in depth. This policy overview summarizes key insights from the individual studies in this issue, and draws overall policy conclusions about the next round of allocations and the design of the system for the longer term. • Allocations for 2008-2012. Allocations defined relative to projected 'business-as-usual' emissions should involve cutbacks for all sectors, in part to hedge against an unavoidable element of projection inflation. Additional cutbacks for the power sector could help to address distributional and legal (State aid) concerns. Benchmarking allocations, e.g. on best practice technologies, could offer important advantages: experience in different sectors and countries is needed, given their existing diversity. However, a common standard for new entrant reserves should be agreed across the EU, based on capacity or output, not on technology or fuel. Maximum use of allowed auctioning (10%) would improve efficiency, provide reassurance, and potentially help to stabilize the system through minimum-price auctions. These measures will not preclude most participating sectors from profiting from the EU ETS during phase II. Companies can choose to scale back these potential profits to protect market share against imports and/or use the revenues to support longer term decarbonization investments, whilst auction revenues can be used creatively to support broader investments towards a lowcarbon industrial sector in Europe. • Post-2012 design. Effective operation during phase II requires a concrete commitment to continue the EU ETS beyond 2012 with future design addressing concerns about distribution, potential perverse incentives, and industrial competitiveness. Declining free allocation combined with greater auctioning offers the simplest solution to distributional and incentive problems. For its unilateral implementation to be sustainable under higher carbon prices over longer periods, EU ETS post-2012 design must accommodate one of three main approaches for the most energy-intensive internationally traded sectors: international (sectoral) agreements, border-tax adjustments, or output-based (intensity) allocation. If significant free allocations continue, governments may also need to follow the example of monetary policy in establishing independent allocation authorities with some degree of EU coordination. Such reform for the post-2012 period would require the Directive to be fundamentally renegotiated in relation to allocation procedures. Such renegotiation is neither feasible nor necessary for phase II operation. Rather, phase II should be a period in which diverse national approaches build experience, whilst the profits potentially accruing to participating sectors can be used to protect market share and jump-start their investments for a globally carbonconstrained future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Directive on the EU ETS allows governments to auction up to 10% of the allowances issued in phase II 2008-2012, without constraints being specified thereafter. This article reviews and extends the longstanding debate about auctioning, in which economists have generally supported and industries opposed a greater use of auctioning. The article clarifies the key issues by reviewing six 'traditional' considerations, examines several credible options for auction design, and then proposes some new issues relevant to auctioning. It is concluded that greater auctioning in aggregate need not increase adverse competitiveness impacts, and could in some respects alleviate them, particularly by supporting border-tax adjustments. Auctioning within the 10% limit might also be used to dampen price volatility during 2008-2012 and, in subsequent periods, it offers the prospect of supporting a long-term price signal to aid investor confidence. The former is only possible, however, if Member States are willing to coordinate their decision-making (though not revenue-raising) powers in defining and implementing the intended pricing mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides a legal analysis of some of the key issues that arise in examining the system for allocating emissions allowances under the EU's emissions trading scheme directive (EU ETS). There is a strong series of arguments in support of the view that the free allocation of allowances under the various national allocation plans (NAPs) involves an element of State aid, which has neither been formally notified to, nor cleared by, the Commission under the EC Treaty. Even if it is found properly to have been notified, there are serious doubts as to whether the extent of aid granted satisfies the proportionality principle. As a result, the operation of the EU ETS may be subject to some legal uncertainty with regard to possible legal challenges to the current allocation of allowances. Going forward, proposals to amend the operation of the EU ETS must take into account similar State aid considerations (particularly proportionality) and the experience gained from the working of the EU ETS in phase I. The structural outline of a possible legislative package has been suggested, which could achieve the safeguarding of commercial and legal certainty under the current allocation regime, while at the same time providing a basis for amendment of the allocation mechanism under the EU ETS for phase II and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes a process of developing socio-cultural indicators to support local and regional decision-making for eco-efficiency. Although eco-efficiency is calculated using environmental and economic variables, decisions on local and regional levels cannot ignore the socio-cultural impacts. The indicators were developed by a participatory process that was based on involvement and empowerment of local actors. The process ensured policy relevance and meaningful indicators and advanced their future use in the decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the international dimension of environmental laws and legislation is gaining in importance, it has become increasingly essential to compare and assess international data. Can international data on noise, often produced by using different national calculation methods, be compared? And what does it mean for (inter)national noise policy? This paper focuses on international data on noise created by road and railroad traffic. Research shows possible differences in the outcome of noise calculations using different national methodologies of up to 15 dB(A). Furthermore, national noise indices and noise standards differ considerably, making it even more difficult to compare data on noise exposure. Therefore, harmonization of calculation methods and noise indices, as initiated by the European Commission, is a necessary first step. Although noise standards are left to the Member States, an effective European noise policy would be enhanced if the same type of indices were used for both noise‐level calculations and noise standards. L aeq ‐type indices are recommended in this regard. Although harmonizing noise calculations and using the same kind of indices would make noise data more comparable, it would still not make Europe quieter. This is why noise measures, preferably at the source, are necessary. The European Commission in Brussels plays a major role in introducing these noise measures. Reduction of tyre noise by tightening emission limits is the most promising option. This may be supported at the national level by applying silent pavements. Integrating noise into spatial planning is the most cost‐effective option at the local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents an overview of progress and future directions in air quality management in Europe, the United States, and Canada. The article describes the role of the European Commission, the Clean Air for Europe program, and the World Health Organization (WHO) in devising policies to reduce health risks due to air pollution in Europe. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards for particulate matter (PM), air quality monitoring programs, and research efforts to support air quality management strategies are discussed. The unique aspects of air quality management in Canada are identified, including the need for a better understanding of the true burden of health effects and improved communication strategies to inform the public and stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With an enlarged membership and a wide agenda including politico-security matters, economic and environmental issues and human aspects, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) aims at promoting stability and democratisation in its area, fostering good governance. The September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001 have prompted the organisation to reinforce its commitments with regard to the prevention of and combat against terrorism, as a primary goal in the pursuit of its main tasks of conflict prevention and management, and post-conflict rehabilitation. The institutional response of the OSCE has been translating its effort to address the new concerns while promoting its founding principles, both at headquarters and in the field. The extent to which the organisation's institutions and commitments are adequate to respond to the new challenges and promote good governance in the OSCE area are analysed. Are the OSCE principles, agreed commitments and elaborated post-September 11 agenda adequate to meet the many uncertainties and to build cooperation and security in the OSCE space? Is the OSCE prepared to respond effectively to the current challenges particularly with regard to Central Asia? Which means and what actions might the organisation pursue in the context of its new agenda? By matching words with action OSCE's contribution to global governance in Central Asia is clarified through assessing its means, activities and adequacy to meet old and new challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a method for analysing interregional differences and identifying a suitable combination of policies for a set of regions. The methodology is based on the development of a composite quality index and is illustrated using the case of the former Soviet Union in the early 1990s. The correlation between the quality of life values and the per capita European Union funding indicates that more funds are allocated to the countries with greater per capita income. The positioning of the FSU countries on a quality of life-per capita income mapping indicates whether emphasis should be placed on regional, environmental or sustainable development policies. Our analysis suggests that in the early 1990s sustainable development policies were best suited for Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Among these countries relatively more funds should be allocated for environmental and regional policies to Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. However, for balanced economic development in Georgia, Moldova and Armenia, the development of regional policies should be the priority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of 'environmental space' has been put forward as a means for providing specific meaning to sustainability. The concept combines the idea of the existence of environmental limits with a strong principle of environmental justice. It has been used as a basis for the development of sustainable action plans for many European countries, and has attracted political interest. However, thus far, the concept has found limited application by governments. The paper identifies and discusses several issues that need to be addressed for the environmental space approach to be implemented. Three main options for the institutionalization of the approach are discussed: within the legal-constitutional framework (as rights and obligations), within the economic system (as environmental property rights), and through green planning (as specific objectives and targets contained in national environmental plans or strategies). The paper discusses the ability of the three options to deal with the issues identified, assessing their relative advantages and disadvantages, and to what extent these options are complementary. Finally, conclusions are drawn about the viability of the concept of 'environmental space'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the impact of European Community accession on the environmental non-governmental organisations (NGO) and environmental advocacy groups in Central European countries. Efforts of environmental NGO in Central and Eastern Europe to promote environmental protection; Information on environmental laws and institutions created in Central Europe before and after 1989; Directives concerning the environment imposed by the European Union in order to be a member of the union.

Discusses the participation of the European Union (EU) elites and non-governmental organizations (NGO) on environmental policy process in Central and Eastern Europe. Importance of informal political processes in the EU; Roles that national and sectoral interests can play in Europe; Perception of EU elites on environmental NGO.

This essay analyses the history of the development of municipal recycling in the United States between 1970 and 1996 as a case of Ecological Modernisation. Using the framework of Ecological Modernisation Theory (EMT), the essay examines the predecessor institutions to modem recycling, showing how environmental policy and politics in the US in the 1970s stimulated a process that altered the technologies, institutions, and environmental impacts of waste management; affected the industrial use of resources; and created many policy and socio-technical innovations. The resulting discipline, integrated waste management, shows a modernised structure, new technology, and an almost completely new discourse, representing a clear break with pre-modernised systems. The essay begins by contesting conclusions from the work of Allen Schnaiberg, David Pellow and Adam Weinberg, and concludes with proposed feedback to EMT on the nature and locus of environmental change outside of EMT's core geographic areas of North-western Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Local Agenda 21 (LA 21) may be regarded as one of the most enduring and possibly most effective outcomes of the 1992 Rio de Janeiro 'Earth Summit'. In Europe alone, approximately 4000 cities, municipalities at regional and local level, and regional authorities are now engaged in a LA 21 process of some kind. This paper reports on the main findings of the recent Local Authorities' Self-Assessment of Local Agenda 21 (LASALA) project, which conducted a Europe-wide research programme into the European LA 21 initiative. The research demonstrates the significant levels of commitment to the LA 21 process amongst European local government, and some notable achievements in sustainable development policies within a very short space of time. Although there is still a long way to go, the LASALA research indicates that LA 21 is an effective policy vehicle for encouraging and supporting sustainable development initiatives at the local level in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 1990s witnessed a debate on public-private partnerships and more consensual environmental policymaking to repair the "state failure" in conventional environmental regulation. One of the consequences in Europe has been new environmental policy arrangements that stand out by being both jointly formulated and/or implemented by the state and private actors and by having a voluntary element: joint environmental policymaking (JEP). Two questions are dealt with: (1) Are forms of JEP to be considered as innovations in environmental policymaking (political modernization) or rather as a continuation of the constant quest from capital for lowering the regulatory burden (deregulation)? (2) What is the influence of the broader political and institutional context on the emergence and functioning of JEP arrangements? In answering these questions a comparative study was carried out on three areas of environmental policy (packaging, industrial energy efficiency, and food labeling) in three comparable European countries (Austria, Denmark, and The Netherlands). It concludes that JEP in itself is neither evidence of political modernization, nor of deregulation. The specific political and institutional context is decisive in how JEP is organized and implemented, and with that the role it plays in environmental reforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the concern surrounding air pollution in Europe. Protocol of the European Union (EU) and the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), which calls for cuts in such air pollutants as sulfur dioxide; Goal of a parallel National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive to reduce pollutant emissions; Effort to develop an effective response to the threat of global climate change; Outlook for the effectiveness of these air-pollution policies. INSETS: Environmental Policymaking in the European Union: The Main...;The Clean Air for Europe Programme.

This article reports the main results of a four-country comparative analysis of the relationship between social exclusion and environmental attitudes and behaviour. Five socially excluded groups were studied through secondary data analysis and case studies. Norms of environmental behaviour tended to be universalized in Germany and Switzerland with much greater differentiation of the socially excluded in Britain and Greece. There were also significant differences between the socially excluded groups with lone parents likely to be particularly receptive to appropriate policy measures. Policy measures are reviewed in relation to the concept of empowerment. Environmental policy could be more effective if it was sensitized to the differential effect of measures on social groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents an update on environmental management in Europe as of September 2000. Actions taken by European countries on the growing public protests against fuel prices; Steps taken by Germany to meet its climate change obligations; Drop in the greenhouse gas emissions of Great Britain between 1991 and 1999.

The paper analyses decision-making in the field of European environmental regulation and examines the implications for tourist policy. It is argued that European Union (EU) environmental policy is influenced by three factors: (1) the EU bureaucracy is interested in expanding its influence and power vis-à-vis national bureaucracies and polities; (2) Northern European countries have selectively recruited regulators with environmentally sympathetic ideologies; and (3) a pro-environmental attitude contributes to the societal legitimation of business. These considerations give a unique character to environmental policy-making, which over time has tended to spill over to thematically connected areas, including to tourism policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-compliance with EU (environmental) law is often considered to be a 'southern problem'. Because of specific features of their political systems, the four southern European member states are believed to lack the capacity for effectively implementing EU policies. In contrast, I argue in this article that, first, there is significant variation in compliance with EU environmental laws across the European member states which cannot be accommodated by a simple north-south divide. Second, the comparative study of the implementation of five different EU environmental policies in Spain and Germany shows that compliance may vary across different policies within one country. The article puts forward a model which allows us to explain variation across both member states and policies. It is argued that non-compliance is most likely if an EU policy causes a significant 'policy misfit' and if there is no mobilization of domestic actors pressurizing public authorities to bear the costs of implementing the 'misfitting' policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the risks posed by European competition law on institutional incentives toward higher corporate environmental performance. Influence of firms on the environmental standards of companies they invest in; Environmental implications of market competition and competition between regulators; Dispute between the European Commission and Protection and Indemnity Clubs.

Presents news briefs from about green management in Europe. Environmental legislative proposals Austria is aiming to pursue; European Union's (EU) strategy for climate negotiations; Meeting between the EU Environmental Council and the ministers on the need to develop renewable energy sources.

Analyzes economic regulation from market-hierarchy modes of governance in a modern society with respect to environmental problems. Weaknesses of strong governance and strength of soft regulation; Illustration of regulatory issues and dilemmas reflected in environmental regulation of energy in Europe.

Argues that serious weakness within ecological modernization (EM) theory emerge when it becomes the basis of a policy agenda in Europe. Problems of EM theorization of sustainable development (SD) in Europe; Focus on Ireland's mainstream environmental policies and practices; Core features of EM discourse; Sustainability principle of social cohesion; EM theory and its flaws; Discussion on the ideal model of SD and its key concepts.