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Average yield of maize (Zea maysL.) in Mozambique is low, mainly due to low use of inputs in agriculture, high seasonal rainfall variability and inadequate soil preparation. A study conducted in two summer crop seasons (November–March 2012/2013 and 2013/2014) examined the impact of three tillage methods (hand hoeing, strip tillage and conventional tillage), two fertiliser levels (0 and 40% N) and two water supply regimes (rainfed and irrigated) on maize root development and grain yield on a sandy soil in a semi-arid region of Mozambique. Tillage had a major effect on soil penetration resistance, but little effect on root growth and limited effect on yield. Thus, there appears to be little need for loosening on this soil. There was also no interaction between tillage and the other experimental factors, meaning that tillage system can be chosen irrespective of fertiliser and water supply. Irrigation had the largest impact on root and shoot growth and crop yield, increasing yield in season 2 from 670 to 4780 kg ha–1.There was a very strong interaction between fertiliser and water supply, with no yield increase for fertiliser in the rainfed treatment, while combined with irrigation it increased yield by 1590 kg ha–1in season 1 and 1840 kg ha–1in season 2. Thus, for the conditions studied here, it was rational to add fertiliser only in combination with irrigation and not in a rainfed system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Delaying tillage and incorporation of arable crop residues in autumn may limit accumulation of soil mineral nitrogen (SMN) and reduce nitrogen (N) leaching. However, on clay soils, high water content during late tillage can impair soil structure and fertility. This study investigated the effects of tillage timing on SMN (0–90 cm depth), soil physical properties in the topsoil and yield in two Swedish clay soils differing in clay content. SMN generally increased during autumn and also with earlier tillage. On a heavy clay soil (Ultuna; ∼60% clay), SMN increased throughout winter until spring and the amount of N leached was probably small. In contrast, on a clay loam soil in southernmost Sweden (Rydsgård; ∼35% clay), SMN decreased during winter by up to 26 kg ha−1. In general, measured soil water content (w) was lower than 0.9 × plastic limit (PL) at the time of early tillage (mouldboard ploughing or stubble cultivation), while it exceeded 0.9 PL at the time of normal and late tillage. The proportion of small aggregates produced by tillage was negatively correlated to relative soil water content at the time of tillage (w/PL). Conventional methods to determine soil physical qualities (bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity, aggregate tensile strength) did not show any clear differences between treatments. However, plant emergence and yield were significantly reduced after late compared with early tillage at Ultuna, a trend that has persisted from 2000 until the present. These results suggest that the suitability of delayed autumn tillage as a means to reduce SMN accumulation and N leaching varies between Swedish clay soils. A reduction in N leaching can be achieved on lighter clay soils in warmer and moister areas, whereas the effects may be small on heavier clay soils in central Sweden, where repeated late tillage carries a risk of yield reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of seedbed properties on emergence of various crops were studied in a series of experiments. Results for crops with seeds weighing <7 mg are reported here. The experiments were carried out in shallow plastic boxes placed directly on the ground in the field. Small seeds require shallow sowing, which is a great disadvantage in the event of dry weather after sowing, particularly on clay and clay loam soils, where the upper 3-cm soil layer quickly dries to wilting point. Nevertheless, good emergence of crops with seeds weighing 2–7 mg (white mustard,Sinapis albaL., oilseed rape,Brassica rapaL., Metzg., sugar beet,Beta vulgarisL. and red clover,Trifolium pratenseL.) was often obtained when the seed was placed at about 3-cm depth directly on a firm basal layer with >6% plant-available water and covered by soil dominated by aggregates <5 mm. Cruciferous crops germinated most rapidly, which facilitated emergence from shallow depth. Sowing could be slightly shallower in coarse-textured than in fine-textured soils, since the former soils dry less rapidly to below wilting point. For timothy (Phleum pratenseL.) with seeds weighing about 0.5 mg and requiring a sowing depth <2.5 cm, it was impossible to design a seedbed that eliminated the risk of poor emergence in dry weather. Firming of the seedbed after sowing favoured emergence only in initially dry seedbeds. The risk of poor emergence because of surface layer hardening was minimised by placing seeds at a depth and in seedbed conditions that promoted the fastest possible emergence. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Rapid, uniform crop establishment is a precondition for efficient crop production. In order to develop guidelines for seedbed preparation and sowing, extensive experiments were carried out in plastic boxes placed in the field directly on the ground for studies of the effects of seedbed properties on crop emergence. This paper deals with the effects on emergence of cereals caused by surface-layer hardening, induced by simulated rainfall (irrigation) after sowing followed by dry weather. The experimental crop was spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Soils for the experiments (Eutric Cambisols, silt loam or clay loam in most cases) were collected from the surface layer of farm fields in various parts of Sweden. On soils with high silt content, irrigation after sowing often caused slumping and subsequent hardening of the whole seedbed. On clay soils, usually only a shallow surface crust formed. The earliest irrigation had the most negative effects on crop emergence. On a silt loam soil with unstable structure, irrigation with only 5 mm reduced emergence to under 20%. Later or heavier irrigation was often less negative, as it allowed the plants to emerge before the surface layer dried and hardened. Deep sowing greatly increased the negative effects on emergence, whereas soil aggregate size usually had negligible effects. It was concluded that when sowing in practice, seedbed preparation and sowing depth should be chosen to promote the fastest possible emergence. Sowing immediately before rain should be avoided, as should shallow sowing that requires rain for the seed to germinate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compared earthworm density, depth distribution and species composition in three soil cultivation experiments including the treatments ploughless tillage and mouldboard ploughing. Sampling was done in September 2005 and for one experiment also in 1994. By yearly sampling 1995–2005, earthworms in an energy forest of Salix viminalis were compared with those in an adjacent arable field. Sampling method was digging of soil blocks and hand sorting and formalin sampling in one cultivation experiment. Both methods were used in the energy forest and arable land comparison. In two soil cultivation experiments, highest abundances or biomass were found in ploughless tillage. Earthworm density was higher in the upper 10 cm, especially in the ploughless tillage. Earthworm density was significantly higher in the energy forest than in the arable field. Formalin sampling revealed c. 36% of the earthworm numbers found by digging in the energy forest and gave almost no earthworms in the arable field. In all treatments with soil cultivation, species living and feeding in the rhizosphere and soil dominated. One such species, Allolobophora chlorotica, was more abundant under mouldboard ploughing than ploughless tillage. Lumbricus terrestris, browsing on the surface and producing deep vertical burrows, was more common in the ploughless tillage. Species living and feeding close to the soil surface were almost only found in the energy forest, which had not been soil cultivated since 1984. The findings support earlier studies pointing out possibilities to encourage earthworms by reduced soil cultivation. This is one of the first published studies that followed earthworm populations in an energy forest plantation during several years. Explanation of earthworm reactions to management and environmental impacts should be done with consideration of the ecology of species or species groups. Earthworm sampling by formalin must always be interpreted with caution and calibrated by digging and hand-sorting sampling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For studies of the effects of seedbed properties on crop emergence, experiments were carried out in shallow plastic boxes. In some experiments, it was examined whether rainfall after sowing could cause oxygen deficiency in the seedbed sufficiently severe to hamper emergence. Crops studied were barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), oilseed rape (Brassica napus var. oleifera, L., Metzg.) and pea (Pisum sativum L.). For harmful oxygen deficiency to develop it appeared that rainfall would need to cause structural collapse of the surface layer followed by continuously wet weather accompanied by slow drainage and high oxygen consumption in the soil; in the experiments the latter was achieved by large amounts of easily decomposable organic matter. It was concluded that such conditions are rare in the field. Therefore, unless rainfall after sowing generates surface water for an extended period, the poor crop emergence often observed after such rainfall is nearly always caused not by oxygen deficiency, but by surface layer hardening when this layer dries. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Extensive experiments were carried out in shallow plastic boxes placed directly on the ground in the field to study the effects of seedbed properties on the emergence of various crops in a cool temperate climate. In a group of experiments with barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), we studied the effects on crop emergence of firming (slight compaction) of the seedbed, simulating the recompacting effects of rolling after sowing or press wheels on the seed coulters. Most of the experiments were carried out without irrigation after sowing. The firming usually had a slightly positive effect on emergence when the water content in the surface layer at sowing was below the wilting point. When the water content in the surface layer was higher, firming often reduced emergence drastically, particularly with deep sowing and in coarse-textured soils. The main reason for negative effects was harmful hardening of the surface layer when the more firm seedbed gradually dried out. When irrigation kept the seedbed continuously moist, the negative effect of firming was almost eliminated. Very high initial water content in the basal layer tended to delay surface layer drying and hardening, and to reduce the negative effect of firming. Firming only slightly influenced the evaporative water losses from the soil. In contrast to the results presented here, previous field trials with cereals have usually resulted in more positive effects of rolling after sowing. This indicates that other effects than firming, such as modification of sowing depth and reshaping of the soil surface, are other important effects of rolling. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Rapid and uniform crop establishment is a prerequisite for efficient crop production and minimal environmental impact. Extensive experiments were carried out in shallow plastic boxes placed in the field directly on the ground for studies of the effects of seedbed properties on emergence of small-grain cereal crops in a cool, temperate climate. This paper presents studies of the seedbed as a protective layer against evaporation and the requirements for good emergence under dry weather conditions. Without rainfall after sowing, nearly complete emergence of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) was obtained, when rapidly germinating seed was placed on a moderately compacted basal layer containing at least 5% (w/w) plant-available water and covered by a 4 cm deep surface layer consisting of aggregates < 5 mm. This applied even when initial water content in the surface layer was below the wilting point and potential evaporation was high. If the soil at 4 cm depth is drier or if a sufficiently fine seedbed cannot be obtained, then seedbed and sowing depth should be somewhat greater, and if the soil is wetter, then the depth may be smaller. There were only small differences in emergence between surface layers consisting of aggregates < 2 mm, 2-4 mm or 2-5 mm, or dominated by these aggregate fractions, but when the surface layer consisted of coarser aggregates, emergence was usually much lower. Determinations of water losses from the soil during the experimental period showed that the differences in emergence were caused by differences in efficiency of the seedbed to control evaporation. The results indicate that, in an initially wet soil, it is always possible to find a time and method for seedbed preparation and sowing that lead to good emergence of small-grain cereal crops, even with a lengthy period without rainfall after sowing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid and uniform crop establishment is a prerequisite for efficient crop production and minimal environmental impact. Experiments were carried out in shallow plastic boxes placed directly on the ground in the field for studies of the effects of seedbed properties on emergence of various crops. This paper presents an analysis of the time required for germination and emergence under near-optimal seedbed conditions. The crops studied were barley, oats, wheat, pea, rape seed, white mustard, sugar beet, red clover and timothy. The time required for germination generally increased with size of the seeds, presumably because larger seeds needed more water to initiate germination. This applied both when comparing different crops and different seed sizes of the same crop. However, considerable differences occurred between seed lots of the same crop and there were greater differences between seed lots of the same crop than between the three small grain crops studied. Growth rate of the seedlings generally increased with seed size, presumably because of increased energy content in the seed. Consequently, the most rapid emergence was obtained from small seeds at shallow sowing and from large seeds at deep sowing. The crops studied had a minimum temperature for germination and seedling growth close to 0 °C. Under optimal seedbed conditions, thermal time required for 50% germination of barley was typically about 65 °C days over this base temperature and for seedling growth about 6 °C days cm-1. From 4 cm sowing depth, about 80 °C days were required for emergence but with considerable variations between seed lots. For rape seed or white mustard about 40 °C days were required for germination and about 8 °C days cm-1 for the seedling growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we describe the susceptibility of Swedish subsoils to compaction and discuss strategies for prevention of traffic-induced subsoil compaction against the background of experiences from wheeling experiments conducted in Sweden during recent years. The susceptibility of Swedish subsoils to compaction must be considered high because subsoils are often wet during field operations and machinery with high wheel loads is used. The risk of subsoil compaction could be reduced by technical solutions, such as the use of dual and tandem wheels instead of single wheels, low tyre inflation pressure or tracks. However, each of these solutions has its limitations. Results from several wheeling experiments on different soils indicate that residual deformations occur even when the applied stress is lower than the precompression stress. Hence, soil compaction could not be avoided completely by limiting the applied stress to the precompression stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]