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In the world, there is a general increase in sea surface temperatures with higher values reaching in enclosed seas. Türkiye is surrounded by these enclosed seas, and sea surface temperatures have been measured since the 1940s. Since most of the stations contained missing data, only 23 stations were used in the study. First of all, the distribution of sea surface temperatures was determined, and then annual and monthly trends were revealed using Mann-Kendall series correlation analysis and Sen slope value. As a result of the study, it was seen that the annual average sea surface temperatures in Fethiye, Ordu, Finike, Çanakkale, Kuşadası, Sinop, Konak and Sarıyer stations have a significant increase trend. Monthly trends show different patterns depending on the seas, with increases in the Mediterranean during the beginning of summer, in the Aegean and Marmara seas during the winter, and in the Black Sea coast during the summer. The analysis shows that the rate of increase in the Mediterranean is 0.67°C/decade and 2°C/decade in the Aegean and Marmara seas and the Black Sea coast. In the Black Sea, the increase in the average maximum sea surface temperature in June at Giresun station is 4°C/decade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of biota in the Black Sea is mostly determined by seawater temperature and salinity. The consensus of many scientists doing research on global warming is that in 2100, the average air temperature will be increase than today's values. With climate changing, precipitation rates will change due to the Black Sea water temperature and the changing atmospheric regime, causing an unbalanced entry of nutrients into the sea, and as a result, excessive plankton proliferation may occur. This may mean that the habitats of the species in the Black Sea are further limited. The increases in sea levels may not be serious, but there is no doubt that there will be some increases. These increases will affect the coastal ecosystem, especially the rich living life in the region where the waves hit the shore, which we call the wave zone, will be adversely affected. These predictions should be followed up with regular scientific monitoring studies and it should be investigated how biota from invertebrates to fish are affected by the changes. This review explored and discussed the long-term changes and causes of biota communities on the southern coast of the Black Sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Persian Gulf-Black Sea International Transport and Transit Corridor is a multimodal and combined network of ships, rails, and road freight routes connecting Iran, Armenia, Georgia, Bulgaria, and Greece. Iran is the trustee of the agreement and has played the central role in establishing a transit route to the Black Sea region as 'Tehran's forgotten bridge to Europe' since its inception in 2016. Nonetheless, the Persian Gulf-Black Sea Corridor faces significant obstacles and challenges: resolving Iran's nuclear issues, resolving disputes between Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, and stabilizing the security situation in the Black Sea following the Ukraine war, all of which reduce its efficiency and quality. In these circumstances, connecting the Iranian railway to the Caucasus and Armenia and building Armenia's North-South highway and the deep port of Anaklia on Georgia's Black Sea coast can stretch the capacities of the Persian Gulf-Black Sea Corridor. It can also strengthen the Wider Black Sea Region and the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article, by focusing on Crimean slavery, aims to enhance our understanding of the social and economic nature of slavery that underwent a remarkable change between the conquest of Caffa (1475) and the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), both of which marked a turning point in the history of slavery in Crimea. With the conquest of Caffa by the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Peninsula turned into a 'slaving hub' in Pontic-Danube steppe land for nearly 200 years. In this period, slaves became a basic commodity employed by a wide range of people in Crimea from different backgrounds from urbanites to peasants and from those who were wealthy to those who were penniless. By contrast in the aftermath of Caffa, however, the Treaty of Karlowitz caused a rapid depletion of slaves and consequently a sharp decline in revenues that Crimean Tatars derived from slavery which was accompanied by high inflation in slave prices and therefore a huge labour shortage. Using a micro-global perspective, this article examines these two political occurrences, which are described as a 'turning point' and 'beginning of the transformation' in Crimean society and explores the nexus between the political contexts and the changes in economic and social life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Labridae (wrasses) showcases a wide range of morphological variations, including diverse shapes, as well as a spectrum of ecological and behavioural characteristics. This study compared intra- and interspecific variation in three congeneric Symphodus species based on 19 morphometric characters associated with external morphology. Morphometric characters were commonly summed as the percentage of total length (TL%). The principal component analysis showed a clear separation of S. roissali from the other two Labridae species. The morphological distinction between species was statistically significant for all variables. While post-orbital length, anal fin length, caudal fin length and soft dorsal fin length are the hallmarks for Labridae species examined in this study, care should be taken when using other characters. Especially S. cinereus and S. ocellatus show similarities in many characters. S. roissali is distinguished from the other two species by its larger head and fin lengths (dorsal, anal, and pectoral). Intraspecific sexual dimorphism was significant for eight variables in the S. cinereus. No significant intraspecies morphological differences by sexes were observed for S. roissali and S. ocellatus species. Sex determination for these two species should be based on macroscopic examination of their gonads rather than external morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shipping interests of Miguirditch Gumuchdjian stemmed from a coal enterprise established in Constantinople in the mid-1890s. A local business partnership operating as coal-mine proprietors and ship owners acquired its first vessel around 1900. From 1902 Gumuchdjian focused on coal importing and shipping, further vessels being acquired or managed under different flags between 1910 and 1914. In the early twentieth century the Turkish coal industry and the prevailing geopolitical situations presented both opportunities and risks. These factors were shaped by external conflicts, demands for independence within the widespread territories of the Ottoman empire, rising Turkish nationalism and the empire's decline, resulting in the declaration of the Turkish Republic in 1923. The First World War proved eventful, with vessels requisitioned for war service and sunk by Allied naval actions. As an Armenian Christian, Gumuchdjian's personal situation became difficult, necessitating a temporary relocation to London between 1915 and 1919 and a permanent move in 1923. His London-based shipping and trading business continued until 1932, when financial and management problems led to its closure. These events are examined in relation to the external contexts and the changing fortunes of a small shipping enterprise over more than three decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a study of merchant businesses of different ethno-religious backgrounds, especially of Greek and Jewish, involved in grain trade of the Black sea and the southern provinces of the Russian Empire and the interrelation between their business organization and practices and the integration of this region into the international economy of the 19th century. It draws upon the historical discussion on the role of merchant firms in the creation of the first global economy. I use the case of the Black Sea to emphasize on the organization and strategies of different merchant groups and the competitive patterns between them, within the geographical, institutional and technological context in the course of the 19th century, as a crucial factor in the expansion of grain trade with the Western European markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following up on the issue of worldwide growing gelatinous plankton dominance, we analysed historical records on zooplankton biomass from the 1970s to the present, in order to assess the ratio of gelatinous- to-non-gelatinous zooplankton (GN). The latter is poorly analysed in current publications featuring the Black Sea pelagic ecosystem. The GN characterizes the quality of zooplankton as a food source for small pelagic fishes which dominate Black Sea fishery. The retrospective analysis of zooplankton biomass constituents in coastal and open sea waters retrieved from published papers was complemented by an 11-year sampling (up until 2021), across the Crimean shelf. The comparison over regions (represented by the north-eastern, the northern, the north-western, the southern and the open sea) showed that the jellyfish Aurelia aurita, the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi, and the dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans act as major contributors to the total gelatinous biomass of the 2000s, on a basin scale. On average, the wet gelatinous biomass is about one hundred times that of the non-gelatinous one. High values of the GN ratio (in wet mass and in carbon units) in coastal waters indirectly imply a leading role of a detritus pathway of organic matter in a pelagic ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research determined the element values, selenium, and mercury balance of the large rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cultured in the Black Sea and the possible health risk for the consumer. By the end of the investigation, the concentration of components in these cultivated large rainbow trout in the Black Sea met the requirements specified by national and international legislation. According to analyses of the hazard risk associated with consuming, it has been determined that independent of nutritional quality, large rainbow trout produced on Turkey's Black Sea coast offers no risk to human consumption regarding element values and may be ingested safely. Health risks associated with the consumption of large rainbow trout in the Black Sea were assessed. Particularly Se had a protective effect against the effects of Hg on human health. EDI, THQ, and CRmm values did not pose a risk to human health. Biomagnification factors were low except Hg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the second article in a study examining the influence of naval geostrategy as a driver influencing Russian policy and military strategy in the Black Sea region. By the mid-2010s, Russia featured a much-improved geostrategic situation in the Black Sea theater as compared to the beginning of the century. Nevertheless, substantial weaknesses remained, some of which Russia has been able to neutralize during the conduct of its 2022 invasion of Ukraine. Following an examination of Russian military actions during the Russo-Ukrainian War, the author concludes that the application of military force by Russia in parts of Ukraine and the wider Black Sea region follows a long-term rationale and that Odesa and Mykolaiv, located at the western Black Sea littoral, remain core concerns for Russian military planners, despite the Russian military's current defensive posture at most sections of the front in southern Ukraine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is the first of two that examine the influence of naval geostrategy in Russian policy and military action in the Black Sea region. Following the dissolution of the USSR, the Russian Federation inherited an unfavorable geostrategic position in the Black Sea theater. Applying models used in naval geostrategy, this article interprets Russian efforts during the twenty-first century's first decade and a half that aimed at improving the country's geostrategic position in this region. In a series of consecutive steps, the Kremlin secured and expanded Russian access to sea zones and naval bases at the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea and, simultaneously, minimized Georgia's and Ukraine's conditions to develop sea power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Niphargus comprises hundreds of narrowly-endemic West Palaearctic subterranean taxa. However, a few exceptional species inhabit surface waters and have remarkably large ranges. Herein, based on morphological and molecular analyses, we provide important new records for two of these species. N. potamophilus, previously known from the eastern Azov Sea lowlands, is reported for the first time from Ukraine and Bulgaria from localities adjacent to the Black Sea. These findings expand its range westward by more than 1000 km along the coastline. From Bulgaria, we also report for the first time N. hrabei, a species previously known to occur along the middle and lower Danube lowlands and in isolated populations at the foothills of the Northern Caucasus. Our new record thus extends its range southwards by more than 150 km. Both species contained unique haplotypes at all of the sampled localities. These were, nevertheless, not very divergent from more distant populations, emphasizing their good dispersal ability. Ecologically, the sampling localities were generally characterized by stagnant to low running water, dense vegetation, and muddy substrate. Overall, our results bring important insights, shedding more light on the biogeography and ecology of Niphargus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One class (Sphacelarietea cirrosae), one order (Sphacelarietalia cirrosae), two alliances (Phyllophoro crispae-Codion vermilarae, Gongolarion barbatae) and five associations (Phyllophoro crispae-Codietum vermilarae, Nereietum filiformisae, Rhodochorton purpureum-Apoglossetum ruscifolii, Gongolario barbatae-Sphacelarietum cirrosae, Ericarietum bosphoricae) of macroalgal communities within the North Caucasian shelf of the Black Sea oligosaprobic sublittoral vegetation are described for the first time, using the Braun-Blanquet approach. Detrended correspondence analysis corroborated the results of the syntaxonomic analysis and revealed two main factors influencing the floristic composition of the investigated communities: depth with associated light level and intensity of water movement. The diagnoses of described syntaxa are given. A comparison of Mediterranean and Black Sea syntaxa is made, and the specificity of the vegetation of the North Caucasian shelf of the Black Sea is shown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for fish products in Black Sea riparian countries has been intensively growing annually by 4% since 2000. This demand was predominantly covered by importation and/or capture fisheries. To reduce pressure on the wild fish stocks of the shared sea basin, regional and national development plans are aiming to stimulate aquaculture production. However, there is a scarcity of instruments that allow assessment of the situation on the regional level to capture the multidimensional nature of such activity. A Composite Indicator or so-called Index has been recognized as one of the best ways to investigate the complex system statement and reveal areas of concern. The aim of this study was (1) to construct a Composite Indicator, (2) to analyze conditions created for aquaculture establishments, (3) to reveal competitive advantages and pitfalls in each country, and (4) to determine possible drivers of countries with better performance such as Turkey and Bulgaria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new gammarid Dursogammarus dromaderusgen. et sp. nov. (Amphipoda: Gammaridae) is described from coastal Black Sea habitats of the southwestern foothills of the Russian Caucasus, being an obligate dweller of coastal pebbles. The new species morphologically resembles representatives of Echinogammarus Stebbing, 1899 and Dikerogammarus Stebbing, 1899, and somewhat Gmelina G. O. Sars, 1894, but can be easily separated by a unique combination of morphological features not characteristic for the latter genera. The most remarkable features are the presence of a dorsal knob (tubercle) on urosomal segment I as well as the long and wide outer ramus (exopod) of uropod III with mostly reduced distal article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The kemençe instrument is a crucial part of daily life in the Eastern Black Sea region's culture. Besides the performance of the kemençe, other instruments, dances, and the ideological discourses associated with the instrument show us how local people interact with the landscape of the Eastern Black Sea region. This study examines the space of kemençe by considering its complex cultural relations in and around the province of Trabzon. We use the concept of organonscape to analyse the space of the kemençe through considering the geography and spatial features of the instrument. This concept shows that instruments are important determinants of performance and are created to mark a fluid space in relation to landscape. As a result, the organonscape of the kemençe contains musical practices and shapes the ideological construction of landscapes as spaces where the kemençe is performed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes two cases where prisoners of war captured in the 1914–17 Black Sea naval conflict were interrogated. In the first case a captured Russian naval officer witnessed an operationally significant event after his interrogation, and covertly reported this via a coded letter. The second case, of an Armenian engineer, reflected a wider Russian practice of capturing and debriefing 'Ottoman' sailors. The article sets both cases in the wider context of Russia's naval campaign against the Ottoman coal trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses the mass migration of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire between the mid-1860s and the 1900s. The Russian expansion to the North Caucasus transformed the entire region surrounding the Black Sea, including its demography, governance and politics. This expansion took place in several phases. The first resulted in a major mass migration by several North Caucasian groups, who abandoned the region in response to the increasing presence of Russian military personnel. During the second stage, the exodus of these groups accelerated because of massacres committed by the Russian military in an attempt to take complete control. Many North Caucasians were exiled to Ottoman lands, arriving en masse, either on foot, or by sailing across the Black Sea. This article argues that the Ottoman state lacked a well-functioning settlement policy regarding the incoming North Caucasians. The Ottomans aimed to accommodate the refugees by deploying the frame of viewing them as 'brothers in religion', but this resulted in a number of issues, in particular due to existing problems concerning the 'state's Tanzimat' order, along with the collection of taxes and conflict with Bedouin tribes in the Mardin region. This article examines this phenomenon by means of a study of the 'Chechens' journey' to the Ottoman Empire, focusing specifically on a subgroup of Chechens, who were settled in the Mardin region. Through the use of a considerable array of archival resources, the article seeks to firstly, trace the route taken by the Chechen group to Mardin and secondly, to clarify their transformation from being considered 'brothers in religion' by the Ottomans to regional bandits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to evaluate trace elements (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn) concentrations and fatty acids of three Black Sea bivalve species - Donax trunculus, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Chamelea gallina as well as human health risk and benefit-risk ratio based on n-3 LC-PUFA vs. toxic/essential elements. The results showed variations in the element concentrations among the analysed species. D. trunculus generally contained higher levels of the essential elements Cu and Zn, while C. gallina – higher Cr and Fe. Toxic elements content did not exceed the international standards for mollusks. D. trunculus and C. gallina were better dietary sources of n-3 LC-PUFA, with approximately two-fold higher EPA + DHA content than M. galloprovincialis. Health risks for most toxic and essential elements exposed from bivalve consumption were safe based on THQ, HI and TR indices. The benefit-risk ratio indicated that studied species are safe for human consumption, except one case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Noctiluca scintillans (Macartney) Kofoid and Swezy, 1921 contributes ∼ 85% of the total biomass of heterotrophic plankton in Crimean coastal waters. Data for the retrospective analysis come from a 20-year sampling (in 2000s) across the Crimean shelf and in adjacent open sea waters. Samples were collected onboard research vessels, in the upper 150 m layer, by Juday nets (vertical hauls) fitted with 145 µm mesh. These data were compared to field surveys of the 1960s. Seasonal blooms of Noctiluca were pronounced during summer time, with the peak of abundance in June. The mesoscale spatial distribution of Noctiluca abundance was most heterogeneous in June as well. The annual concentration of cells in coastal waters exceeded that of the open sea by four times. The coefficient of Noctiluca seasonal abundance variation in coastal waters was 1.5 times higher than that of the open sea. The Principal Component Analysis implied that the seasonal variation of the Noctiluca abundance offshore was modulated by coupling of the atmospheric precipitation, sea surface temperature, photosynthetically active radiation, euphotic depth, chlorophyll-a concentration, Noctiluca abundance in coastal waters, mesoscale eddies and wind stress. A general decline of Noctiluca abundance and biomass was observed in coastal waters, from the 1960s to the present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russia seeks to convert the Black Sea into a Russian lake. This entails projecting power well into the Mediterranean Sea. Since 2013 Moscow has reinforced the missile, air defence, and submarine component of its Mediterranean Eskadra (Squadron) to deny NATO access to the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Seas. This article explains how and why Russia's Mediterranean Eskadra has become a major arm of Russia's military-political strategy in these waters. By analysing its missions, roles, and activities the article shows how Moscow conducts innovative, sophisticated, yet simultaneously traditional military-political operations to maximise and enhance its global standing in accordance with its own strategy. The article further argues that the Eskadra's creation and deployment corresponds not just to the revival of Russian military capability in 2013, but also to a much broader Russian perspective on contemporary war, and analyzes Russia's political considerations in the deployment of major military forces in the Mediterranean Basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new Ponto-Caspian species of the genus Echinogammarus Stebbing, 1899 (Amphipoda: Gammaridae), E. mazestiensissp. n., is described from the estuary of the Mazesta River, Sochi Area, southwestern Caucasus. The new species can be clearly separated from the related Ponto-Caspian E. ischnus (Stebbing, 1899) and E. trichiatus (Martynov, 1932) by a significantly smaller size of mature specimens and various morphological features. Molecular genetic analysis using the COI mtDNA gene marker (barcoding) confirmed that the new species belongs to the Ponto-Caspian group (= Pontogammaridae s. str.) and is originated from the Ponto-Caspian basin, not being an alien. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stock structure and productivity components (growth, maturity and mortality) of the Black Sea whiting Merlangius merlangus were studied in the western Black Sea for a year. The results aim to improve fisheries management of whiting in the Black Sea. Fresh samples were collected from commercial bottom trawlers between October 2017 and September 2018. Using monthly length-frequency data set for the growth trajectories, a bootstrapped procedure was employed to improve parameter optimization. Duration and timing of the spawning season and size at sexual maturity were modelled using generalized additive models (GAMs). The presence of clear differences in oocyte size groups indicates that oocyte development of Black Sea whiting is a 'group synchronous' ovarian developmental process characterized by continuous reproduction. From the gonadosomatic index values, their spawning activity intensifies especially between October and April, captured also in the time component in the GAM modelling. The length at first maturity was 13.9 cm for females and 12.5 cm for males. The mortality rates, yield per recruit analyses, and length-based indicators suggest that whiting is heavily exploited with alarming signs of overexploitation. Undoubtedly, setting catch limits and re-establishing management plans will be the first two steps to ensure reproductive success and prevent overfishing (F > Fmsy). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to examine changes in stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios, to determine the levels of metals (aluminum, copper, iron, manganese, lead, and zinc), and to assess the health risks associated with consumption of the most consumed pelagic and demersal fish species in Turkey. Trachurus mediterraneus, Mullus barbatus, and Merlangius merlangus were seasonally caught from the Eastern Black Sea in 2020. Concentrations of heavy metals in fish muscle tissues were measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy whereas stable isotope analysis was performed using Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer. The detected levels of metals studied in all fish species except lead were below the determined limits of national and international standards. In addition, the carcinogenic risk index was considered significant in all fish species. Considering the principal components analysis results, Cu and Pb may have originated from similar sources. No significant difference in metal content and stable isotope rates was observed between different species of fish. Also, target hazard quotient values were found below 1 in all species, which means that the consumption of the studied fish species does not pose a health risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forecasting future sea levels is of great importance in terms of the conservation of coastal areas, monitoring and forecasting coastal ecosystems, and the maintenance and planning of coastal structures. In addition, highly accurate sea level forecasts allow adequate water management policies and coastal infrastructures to be developed. Today, many methods, such as harmonic analyses, artificial neural networks and support vector machines, are used to predict sea level anomalies. In this study, a novel approach based on Copula functions is presented for the prediction of sea level anomalies. The primary purpose of this study is to examine the applicability and capability of Copula-based prediction models in predicting short-term variations in the sea level. The minimum 95% correlations and minimum 22 mm RMSE values in sea level anomaly predictions during the testing period indicate that the Copula approach can be a powerful tool in the prediction of sea level anomalies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present study is to give a contribution to the extreme wave climate assessment in the Black Sea, as studies of extreme storm waves are of great interest for coastal protection and maritime traffic. High resolution wind wave data sets are used to investigate trends and variability of the characteristics of extreme storm waves. Two different methodologies (Eulerian and Lagrangean) are applied to 30 years of wave hindcast from 1987 to 2016, over the Black Sea to identify extreme storm waves and also to assess the extreme wave climate. Using the Eulerian methodology, it is observed that extreme storm waves are seasonal, being more frequent during the winter and almost non-existent during the summer. Also, that some areas, as the south-eastern region of the Black Sea more prone to storm generation, in particular, during winter and autumn. For the seven locations near the coast, a considerable inter-annual variability is found in extreme values, but not so much in the mean. Statistical significance in trend adjustment was only found in two locations in the north-western coast, for extreme values. Using a Lagrangean methodology, an inter-annual variability in all storm characteristics that is found, more marked in the annual number of wave storms, maximum area affected by storm waves and maximum length, and less marked for maximum Hs in the storm waves and storm lifetime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concentrations of some metals were determined in muscle tissue of five marine fish species (Engraulis encrasicolus, Sarda sarda, Mullus barbatus, Trachurus mediterraneus, and Merlangius merlangus) caught from the Eastern Black Sea coast of Turkey in 2017. Heavy metals were analyzed by using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry after the muscle tissues of fish were digested by acids. The metal accumulation differences between species were investigated statistically. The levels of aluminum, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, lead, and zinc in the muscles of fish were 3.27, 0.12, 0.27, 2.04, 9.97, 1.00, 0.95, and 10.65 µg/g, respectively. The highest levels of aluminum, cadmium, chromium, and manganese were detected in E. encrasicolus; the highest levels of lead and zinc were accumulated in T. mediterraneus and the highest concentration of iron and copper was found in S. sarda. The average lead concentration values were found to be above the limit values determined by national and international standards due to anthropogenic inputs such as mining activities and agricultural wastes. In addition, potential risks associated with human consumption were evaluated using quality indices such as estimated daily intake and target hazard ratio. According to these indexes, a potential risk in terms of human health has not been identified due to consuming fish tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the merchant and commodity networks of Trebizond as well as routes at the regional, interregional, and international levels that connected the city to Constantinople, the rest the Black Sea, Armenia, the Near East and the Caucuses in the early Middle Ages. After a brief survey of the commercial history of Trebizond from the late antique period to the eleventh century, the economy of the Pontic region and its commercial exchanges with various regions are investigated in detail. The available evidence shows that the list of commodities exchanged between Pontos and its neighbours were longer, and the networks of merchants and routes were more complex than assumed thus far. Trebizond's advantage as a port town for landlocked territories to its south and east (especially the large Iranian and Iraqi markets at the end of the Silk/Spice Route), as well as its close ties with Constantinople and the rest of the Black Sea, established the Pontic capital as a vital emporium. Benefiting from the increasing economic development in Byzantium and its neighbours, the prosperity of the Pontic region and is main city Trebizond is most visible in the period from the mid-ninth to the mid-eleventh centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since Russia's annexation of Crimea in March 2014, severe limitations have been placed on Ukraine's coastal state rights and navigational freedoms in the Black and Azov Seas and the Kerch Strait. The "Kerch Strait clash" in November 2018, which resulted in the Russian capture of three Ukrainian naval vessels in international waters south of the strait, can be seen as the temporary culmination of tensions that have been building up over a longer period. In violation of international law and bilateral agreements, Russia has in recent years pursued an increasingly assertive and revisionist policy in the region and sought to turn the maritime spaces on the country's southwestern flank into a "Russian lake". This policy is affecting not only the security and economy of neighbouring states such as Ukraine and Georgia, but also the strategic balance in the southeastern corner of Europe. Drawing on empirical evidence derived from Russian, Ukrainian and Western sources, as well as insights from neoclassical realist theory, this article discusses legal, economic and security aspects of Russia's ongoing quest for a dominant position in the Black Sea region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Saint Nicholas Bay Shipwreck (SNBS) lies in 4 m of water near Chernomorets, Bulgaria. The wreck was studied in a rescue excavation in 2015. Design and construction point to the second half of the 19th century and Mediterranean European provenance. Analysis of fastenings attributes the ship's origin to the Adriatic coast of the Austro-Hungarian Empire linking its construction with the prominent shipyard Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino. Archival research reveals that the wreck may be one of several vessels, built between 1863 and 1869. The SNBS provides a valuable perspective on the globalization of Black Sea seafaring during the 'long 19th century'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sensitive and selective gas chromatographic (GC) method has been developed for the determination of dissolved methane, ethane, propane butane, pentane and hexane in seawater from sediment pores. For this purpose, a headspace method was developed. The dissolved methane concentrations in the liquid phase were calculated using Henry's Law and in the gas phase using a partial pressure measurement. The method requires minimal sample preparation and provides low ng/L detection limits. The samples were collected from Black Sea bottom sediment porewaters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rich archival collection of the Pisan Charterhouse at Calci preserves over 3,000 parchments, many of which concern Pisan trade. Discussed here are eight documents concerning the activity of Pisan merchants in the Levant and in Byzantine territories, especially in Acre, Cyprus and Alexandria. Six deeds are from the thirteenth century, of which five predate the Fall of Acre. Two other documents from the early fourteenth century were drawn up in Crimea (Soldaia), and were recently published by Francesca Pucci Donati. The documents provide evidence on the composition of the Tuscan urban merchant class, which is represented in the documents by wealthy and influential members of the local nobility, as well as by members of the lower class. The documents also demonstrate the scope of their trading activities. The merchants travelled widely and had purview over large areas. Especially noteworthy is the fact that the same merchants frequented the emporia of Romania as well as those of the Middle East and Egypt, often linking them together and even going beyond Constantinople to the Black Sea. Finally, the documents provide interesting information on the goods exchanged in these transactions and the currencies used in this wide-ranging trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present work is to broaden our knowledge on the variability of metals and metalloid concentration levels in surface sediments, macroalgae and mollusc. Accordingly, As, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn levels in surface sediments, marine macroalgae species (Ulva intestinalis and Ceramium rubrum) and mollusk (mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis) collected from nine stations along the Sürmene Bay, Black Sea, Turkey, have been investigated using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Hence, higher concentration levels of As, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn have been recorded in the sediments and macroalgae collected from the harbor area, largely exceeding those recorded in previous studies carried out in the Turkish Black Sea. Consequently, sampled sediments from such area have revealed the highest Contamination Factor (Cf) values as well as the highest Contamination Degree (CD) levels, signaling higher ecological risks. Furthermore, U. intestinalis has shown higher accumulation capacity than C. rubrum and M. galloprovincialis. The Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) and the Hazard Index (HI) have been carried out in order to evaluate the non-carcinogenic health risks posed by metals/metalloid via M. galloprovincialis consumption, revealing values below 1 for all sampling sites, indicating thus no adverse effects on human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unraveling of the geological processes, which are recorded in the chemical and isotopic fingerprinting of the deep-sea sediments, demands the introduction of a sensitive parameter over time. The aim of this study is to analyze the deep-sea sediments from the Black Sea, using the stable isotopic and elemental content. For this purpose, 41 sediment samples were taken from five cores, having lengths between 2.66 and 4.24 m using a gravitational core. Additional nine samples were taken from three cores using a multicore equipment. All samples were collected during a two weeks marine expedition, in the beginning of September 2018, in the western part of the Black Sea. The isotopic values (δ13C; δ18O) and elemental concentrations (macro-, micro-elements, and heavy metals) were determined in the sediments samples, along with δ18O and δ2H in extracted water from sediments. Preliminary results obtained from sediments show that δ13C values of the bulk organic component range between -27.9 ‰ and -22.3 ‰ with a mean value of -25.3 ‰, while for inorganic component, the δ13C and δ18O values range between -4.3 ‰ and 1.5 ‰ for δ13C, and from -10.6 ‰ to -0.07 ‰ for δ18O, respectively, with a mean of -0.32 for δ13C and -5.74 ‰ for δ18O, versus Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB) international standard. In the extracted water, the δ18O variation range was between -3.5 and 1.6 ‰, with a mean of -1.7 ‰, while the δ2H values range between -32.4 ‰ and -16.5 ‰ with a mean of -23.1 ‰. The results of this research will be the basis of the new paleoclimatic reconstruction using stable isotopes in the deep-sea sediments from the Black Sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since Russia's military intervention in Ukraine in 2014, the security situation of Europe's eastern 'frontline states' has undergone significant changes. In and around the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Barents Sea, the scope and scale of military activity has grown, as has the frequency of Russian–Western military encounters. Despite the many similarities between the three regions, and despite the increased risk of negative spillover from one region to another, there are also noteworthy regional differences. As of today, the security challenges appear to be more severe and pressing in the southern and central part of the 'frontline' than in the northern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Black Sea region is the center of the world’s nuclear black market, with Russia being the known or suspected source of most nuclear contraband and Turkey the preferred destination. To date, known attempts at nuclear smuggling have been unsuccessful, because the insiders who stole fissile material were not experienced at finding buyers and moving the material across country borders. Recently, however, organized crime appears to have become involved in some nuclear trafficking. Such involvement threatens to change the nuclear terrorism equation, providing the marketing and transportation expertise previously lacking. The US response to nuclear smuggling is handled by the Defense Department and the Energy Department. These agencies have few capabilities for dealing with organized crime, and the countries of the Black Sea region tend not to share nuclear information with one another. Unless international coordination and law enforcement are improved, criminal organizations will likely be able to supply terrorists sufficient fissile material to build an atomic bomb. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article brings under scrutiny Romania's strategic initiatives in the Black Sea area. Theoretically, our article rests on neoclassical realism which highlights the importance of subsystemic factors for states that seek to make strategic adjustments in a strained security environment. In our view, strategic expertise, or lack thereof, is another subsystemic factor, along with strategic culture and the political calculus of different leaders, that accounts for the emergence of misperceptions of a given security milieu. In the case of Romania, lack of strategic expertise has led to misjudgements of the security environment in the Black Sea area which have caused tactical errors, such as the systematic promotion of a high politics security agenda. Thus, the failure of Romania's strategic initiatives in the Black Sea region are not only the systemic factors but also the subsystemic lack of strategic expertise, which reveals a deficit of state capacity. By annihilating the low level of agency that small states can actualize in a tense security environment, the lack of strategic expertise spawns peripheral regionalism, which is a failed subregionalism that occurs under specific security circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article attempts to measure the multilayered, diverse historical memories of contemporary Ukrainians, drawing on a cluster analysis of nationwide survey data collected after the Euromaidan. A significant minority of Ukrainian citizens still gravitate toward Soviet–Russian narratives. These are not merely copies of those embraced in Russia, however; they include ambivalent 'hybrid' feelings of nostalgia for the Soviet Union while supporting Ukraine's independence. This article argues that historical memories of Ukrainians in the southern and eastern regions are amorphous and heterogeneous, and that the architects of the Novorossiya project failed to distinguish Soviet nostalgia from Ukrainophobia and separatist grievances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Hemimysis (Malacostraca: Mysida: Mysidae) encompasses near-bottom, demersal and cave-dwelling mysids living in the marine, brackish and freshwater habitats around the European coast, from the Caspian Sea to the Scandinavian Peninsula. We conducted cladistic analysis of 52 morphological characters of all nine species and three subspecies of the genus Hemimysis. We also completed a molecular analysis based on three molecular markers of Hemimysis lamornae (Couch, 1856) found in the English Channel, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Black Sea. Both analyses did not support monophyly of Hemimysis lamornae. We thus consider the former subspecies H. lamornae pontica (Czerniavsky, 1882) and H. lamornae mediterranea Bacescu, 1936 as valid species. Analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences of H. pontica shows no significant divergence between mysids living in the marine caves of Crimea and Bulgaria. Morphological trends in Hemimysis are discussed, H. pontica Czerniavsky, 1882 is redescribed, and a new key to all 11 species of the genus is given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses potential Ukrainian rights of passage through Kerch Strait against the background of restrictions on passage imposed by Russia since the annexation of Crimea, taking into account the ongoing arbitral proceedings under Annex VII of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. The article addresses first the question of the status of Kerch Strait and the Sea of Azov under the international law of the sea. In a second step, the article deals with the issue of potential Ukrainian passage rights through Kerch Strait based on the legal status discussed in the first section as well as relevant bilateral treaties between Ukraine and Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this investigation, zooplankton was studied between July 2015 and June 2016 in Hamsilos Bay to examine spatial and temporal variations in abundance, biomass and taxonomic composition. The recorded mean zooplankton abundance and biomass were 3770.35 ind. m−3 and 25.06 mg m−3 in the inner station, 3928.11 ind. m−3 and 28.19 mg m−3 in the middle station and 3948.22 ind. m−3 and 28.74 mg m−3 in the outer station, respectively. The high abundance and biomass values observed in September 2015 were attributed to Oithona davisae (4575 ind. m−3 at the inner station) and Penilia avirostris (33.4 mg m−3 at the outer station), respectively. Copepoda was the most abundant during the entire period of the survey. In terms of abundance and biomass, Copepoda was followed by meroplankton and Cladocera. Most species within the zooplankton community exhibited evident seasonality throughout the year in Hamsilos Bay. This was particularly apparent for O. davisae, Centropages ponticus, Cladocera and meroplankton, which were abundant in summer–autumn, and for Pseudocalanus elongatus, which was more abundant during winter and spring. It has been determined that O. davisae, which is a non-indigenous cyclopoid copepod species of the Black Sea, has successfully inhabited southern Black Sea and has established a permanent population in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information about food web dynamics is crucial for the success of ecosystem-based management. In order to collect such information, it is necessary to establish the dietary contents of species in the food chain. In this study, the diet of Atlantic bonito Sarda sarda (Bloch, 1793), one of the most important species in the Black Sea ecosystem, has been examined. The aim of this study was to investigate the prey preferences of Atlantic bonito over an eleven-year period during their feeding migration to the Black Sea. Sampling was carried out by commercial purse seine and gill nets along the Turkish Black Sea coast during migration of the Atlantic bonito from 2005 to 2016. Stomach contents were identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level. Atlantic bonito dietary composition was analyzed by fishing season, sex and size classifications. Results revealed a Vacuity Index value (V %) of 67% while 33% of individuals sampled had at least one prey species in their stomach content. Since S. sarda predominantly feed on small fish species, stomach contents contained mainly Engraulis encrasicolus, Trachurus mediterraneus, Sprattus sprattus, Mullus barbatus, Gobius niger,Merlangius merlangus, Pomatomus saltatrix, Alosa immaculata, Parablennius tentacularis and small unidentified prey items (tissue particles, ... etc.). The most frequent prey item was E. encrasicolus with a percentage occurrence of 94%. In conclusion, the main prey species was determined as E. encrasicolus and statistical analyses of X2 was found significant (P < 0.005) according to year, sex and size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new data on monothalamous (single-chambered) foraminifera from the Black Sea Crimean shelf zone between Karkinitsky Gulf in the west to the area near Kerch in the east. Within this region we recognized a total of 40 morphospecies; 8 are assigned, in some cases tentatively, to known species and another 9 to known genera, again sometimes tentatively. Twelve species (all undescribed) are reported here for the first time. The most abundant species are Psammophaga sp. (sensu Gooday et al. 2011), Goodayiarostellata Sergeeva & Anikeeva 2008 and Vellaria pellucida Gooday & Fernando 1992, each of which is evenly distributed in all studied areas. The highest species richness of monothalamous foraminifera was observed in the Yalta region. Based on a multivariate analysis of monothalamid assemblage structure and diversity indices [Shannon (H'), Margalef (D'), eveness Pielou (J'), Simpson (1-λ') and rarefaction ES(n)], we recognized three groups of stations, corresponding to the Western, Southern and Eastern coasts of the Crimean peninsula. The monothalamid assemblages found in each of these coastal regions exhibit different structural features and are distinguished by certain characteristic species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study presents some results of the Black Sea ecosystem dynamics during about twenty years (1998-2016), based on numerical simulations with the assimilation of remote-sensing data. The 3D model of the lower trophic level marine ecosystemis a one-way, off-line coupled with circulation model. It describes processes in the layer from the sea surface to 200mdepth and includes 15 state variables. The ecosystem model assimilates the satellite measurements which are the maps of the surface chlorophyll concentration fields reconstructed based on the remote-sensing data from the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS, satellite OrbView) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS, satellites Aqua and Terra) using the regional optical model of the Black Sea. The assimilation technique is based on optimal interpolation and nudging procedure. The results of the simulation were validated using the Black Sea Oceanographic Database, which contains the direct measurements of chlorophyll, nitrates, and dissolved oxygen concentrations in seawater. Comparison of the simulation data with measurements showed that the simulated fields satisfactorily reproduce seasonal variability and vertical distribution. In addition to in situ measurements, the obtained surface chlorophyll distributions were also compared with the satellite data. The simulation results allowed analysing the inter-annual and seasonal variability of the main parameters of the Black Sea pelagic ecosystem. Evolution of the plankton biomass in the upper 50 m layer shows a negative linear trend, which is followed by reduction of the nitrates content in this layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper examines the impacts of gender and season variables on the nutritional composition and metal levels of warty crab caught in the central Black Sea region (Ordu). Crab samples were caught over four seasons, using gillnets, trammel net, and SCUBA diving. Results of chemical analysis showed that protein, lipid, moisture, and total mineral substance level ranges of male crabs were 20.45-22.64%, 0.95-1.27%, 75.44-77.09%, and 1.63-2.08%, while these ranges in female individuals were determined as 19.45-21.46%, 0.63-0.92%, 75.44-77.44%, and 2.08-3.28%, respectively. Macro and trace element levels in crab muscle tissue were determined as K > P > Na > Ca > Mg and Zn > Fe > Cu > Mn > Se > Ni > Mo > Co, respectively. Cd and Pb levels in crab muscle tissue were determined to be lower than the limit values given in codices independent of the seasonal variables. However, as the levels were found to be above the limit values, metal concentrations in crabs were also evaluated based on provisional tolerable daily intake and provisional tolerable weekly intake limits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of seasonal and sexual differences on the levels of macro, trace element, and toxic metal levels inMullus barbatuswere investigated using the ICP-MS. The quantity relationships of macro elements were found as K>P>Na>Ca>Mg for male, P>K>Na>Ca>Mg in female; the quantity relationships of trace elements were determined as Fe>Zn>Mn>Mo>Se>Cu>Ni>Co in male, Fe>Zn>Mn>Se>Cu>Ni>Mo>Co in female; and the quantity relationship of toxic elements were found as As>Pb>Cd in both male and female. Macro, trace, and toxic metal levels showed no significant differences (p> .05) in terms of sexuality, but demonstrated seasonal differences (p> .05). Overall, the highest level of macro elements was determined in the autumn, while the high level of trace elements was measured in the winter. The As, Cd, and Pb levels in the muscle tissue of red mullet fish were higher than acceptable limits. However, when the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) and Estimated Weekly Intake (EWI) of both toxic metals are considered, they appear to be below acceptable limits. As a result, it was determined that the red mullet had been contaminated with toxic metals (Cd and Pb) but their levels according to EDI and EWI were below the limit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russia has long been pursuing an intended and calculated policy of keeping enough influence in Bulgaria in order to have control over national decisions. Together with the economic, energy, political and information tools used by Russia in its hybrid war against Bulgaria and in its bid to achieve an enduring “state capture,” defence is also a distinct target of Russian subversion now. A list of noticeable subversive actions with tangible effects can be summarised, ranging from fuelling division and manipulating public opinion, preventing the strengthening of the NATO position in the Black Sea, sabotaging defence reform to various options of subverting the modernisation of the Bulgarian Armed Forces and seeking new ways to keep legacy Soviet military equipment in operation as long as possible. This issue must be urgently addressed both nationally and in NATO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A shipwreck from the early 3rd century BC was discovered in the Black Sea's suboxic depths off Ereğli, Turkey, during the 2011 E/V Nautilus expedition. Remote investigation revealed the trawl‐damaged remains of a merchant ship carrying multiple amphora types associated with Aegean and Pontic production areas. Also discovered were elements of the ship's hull that show evidence of both pegged mortise‐and‐tenon and laced construction. The wreck provides crucial archaeological evidence for both maritime connectivity and ship‐construction methods during a period of political and economic transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assess the sociolinguistic vitality of Romeyka, the only Asia Minor Greek variety, which, albeit endangered, is still spoken in the Black Sea region, Turkey (historically known as Pontus), by means of nine extralinguistic (i.e. sociological) and sociolinguistic factors, specially tailored for the situation of Romeyka. Our current vitality assessment addresses an Istanbulite community, although the results will be compared against a rural community in the Black Sea, namely ‘Anasta’ [Sitaridou, I. 2013. “Greek-Speaking Enclaves in Pontus Today: The Documentation and Revitalization of Romeyka.” InKeeping Languages Alive: Language Endangerment: Documentation, Pedagogy and Revitalization, edited by M. Jones and S. Ogilvie, 98–112. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press]. We used the direct approach to conduct an attitudinal survey – the first of its kind for Romeyka – which allows us to track the interrelation of vitality factors. The most relevant factors were (i) Turkish language policies and education; (ii) identity function of the language; and (iii) language competence. Furthermore, as an often-neglected factor, the language of data elicitation was shown to affect the answers of respondents. The following variables were also found pertinent: (iv) age, (v) gender, (vi) speech community; the latter is argued to constitute the most crucial factor for Romeyka’s vitality. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Instead of total metal concentration measurements in seafood, bioaccessibility is a more important parameter for human health risk assessment. Therefore, bioaccessibility of Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the edible soft tissues of rapa whelk (Rapana venosaValenciennes, 1846) collected along the southern Black Sea coast were investigated using anin vitrodigestion model. Zn was detected at the highest concentration, whereas Ni was the lowest for total metal concentrations. Total Cd and Pb concentration in the tissues were found to be higher than maximum permissible limits set by European Commission. The bioaccessibility of metals in the tissues was found to be decreased in the order: Cu (77.11%) > Cd (70.13%) > Zn (64.52%) > Ni (61.27%) > Pb (50.53%) > Cr (43.41%) > Mn (22.59%). While significant positive linear regressions were observed between the total and bioaccessible concentrations for Mn, Pb, and Ni, significant negative linear regressions were found for Cd in the tissues (p< 0.05). The hazard quotients (HQ) calculated using bioaccessible heavy metal amount were detected lower than the limit value (HQ < 1), which may not pose a potential hazard to humans declared by US Environmental Protection Agency. However, the consumption of rapa whelk may cause a potential risk concerning human health for the Cd and Pb levels in case of increased serving sizes and portions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]