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This study aimed to synthesise and interpret stable isotopic data (δ2H and δ18O) from various sources to understand the isotope hydrology around coal mine operations in Elk Valley, B.C., Canada. The data, including precipitation, groundwaters, seeps, and mine rock drains, were used to construct a local meteoric water line (LMWL) for the Elk Valley, evaluate the spatiotemporal isotopic composition of its groundwater, and assess mine seepage and mine rock drain discharge. The study revealed a robust LMWL relation (δ2H = 7.4 ± 0.2 · δ18O – 4.3 ± 4.1). The groundwater and seep data indicated a winter season bias and a north–south latitudinal gradient, suggesting rapid near-surface groundwater flow without significant post-precipitation evaporation. Porewater isotope samples from unsaturated mine rock piles (MRPs) showed site-specific evaporation patterns, potentially due to convective air flows or exothermic sulphide oxidation. This research revealed the influence of groundwater and meltwater on rock drain discharge. Based on evaporative mass balance calculations, MRPs seasonally contributed ca. 5 %(December base flow) and 22 % (snowmelt) to drain discharge. The findings underscore the value of stable isotope data collections in the Elk Valley to help better define and quantify the hydrology–hydrogeology, including a better understanding of evaporative conditions in MRPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biospheres are working landscapes that promote conservation and sustainable land-use while also providing space for outdoor recreation, environmental education, and research. This study focuses on Elk Island National Park in Alberta, Canada, which is part of the Beaver Hills Biosphere. The park is home to bison and black bears and growing visitor numbers have increased the potential for human-wildlife conflict. With a focus on the promotion of human-wildlife coexistence, this study takes a mixed-methods approach to develop and evaluate an environmental education program targeted to improve visitor awareness about safety around bison and bears at Elk Island National Park. The program was found to be effective in teaching visitors about safe behaviors around wildlife and key themes arose about important learning outcomes. In particular, the findings indicate interpretation and environmental education programs have the potential to increase awareness about safety for both humans and wildlife and shift away from more human-centric perceptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three different farms reported cases of angular limb deformities (ALD) in rising 2-year-old velvet, mostly red deer (Cervus elaphus), stags with the earliest recorded cases occurring in 2010. Farm 1 reported a prevalence of 10–35%, farm 2, 5–11.5%, and farm 3, 2–5%. Farms 1, 2, and 3 are located in South Canterbury, northern Southland, and the Waikato, respectively. Affected animals developed ALD, with predominantly varus forelimb (bowed) deformities. On all farms serum calcium and phosphorus concentrations in affected animals were normal. Serum and liver copper concentrations were variable across the period of the study and between farms. Although some measurements were below the reference ranges, there was no evidence for a statistical association with the prevalence of abnormalities. The distal radius from 25 affected and four control red and red-wapiti (Cervus canadensis) cross deer from Farm 1 in 2010/2011, two affected red deer from Farm 2 in 2016, and one affected red deer from Farm 3 in 2021, were examined. The most consistent lesions were present in the distal radial physis, most commonly the lateral edge. There was mild-to-severe segmental thickening of the physis and, in some animals, physeal cartilage was duplicated with both sections of physis varying in thickness. Microscopically, in severely affected animals there was massive segmental thickening of physeal cartilage which often contained large cystic cavities. The cartilage matrix was eosinophilic and showed a loss of metachromatic staining with toluidine blue. In less severe cases, necrotic physeal vessels were present, consistent with vascular failure. In more chronic cases, there was duplication of the physis, the two layers being separated by a combination of normal trabecular bone and dense fibrous connective tissue. Physeal osteochondrosis. Osteochondrosis has a multifactorial aetiology and we propose that an increased requirement for nutrients for velvet production and increased weight-bearing stress (behaviour and rapid weight gain) may lead to progression of osteochondrosis and ALD in these deer. The involvement of periods of copper deficiency is unclear at this time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reports of neoplasia in deer remain rare (Hill and Staples [7]), despite the conviction that as deer farming became more common, a greater number of pathological processes, including tumours, would be recognised in deer (Pérez I et al i . Skin tumours are among the most common neoplasms reported in red deer ( I Cervus elaphus i ) and are usually papillomavirus-associated dermal fibropapillomas and papillomas (Erdélyi I et al i . Bulletin of the Wildlife Disease Association 3, 102 - 4, 1967. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-3.3.102 6 Garcês A, Pires I, Savini F, Scagliarini A, Gallina L. Cutaneous fibropapilloma in a red deer (Cervus elaphus) associated with Cervus elaphus papillomavirus in Portugal. [Extracted from the article]

Long-term success of wildlife restoration programs depends on their potential to bring economic benefits to stakeholders. Because of the non-market nature of some benefits (e.g., wildlife viewing), however, demonstrating the economic value of such programs is often challenging. By employing a travel cost model of elk-viewing trips among households around the North Cumberland Wildlife Management Area, Tennessee, this study estimated the net economic benefit of elk-viewing opportunities generated from an elk reintroduction program. Depending on the assumptions about visitors' opportunity cost of time, the net economic benefit of elk viewing was estimated to range from $21/trip to $53/trip. When aggregated across the population, the total economic value of the elk-viewing opportunity generated from this restoration program was estimated to be as high as $6.95 million. Results from this study will be useful in characterizing the economic benefits of elk viewing and providing economic justification for restoration programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic valuation can aid decision-makers in justifying the costs of conservation programs like wildlife reintroductions. Factors like stakeholder trust and confidence in conservation professionals for their ability to manage risks may play important roles in determining how local residents support and value the conservation of reintroduced species. This study analyzed data collected from a household survey of residents near an elk restoration zone in East Tennessee and found their willingness to pay (WTP) for reintroduced elk conservation to be $45.53 per household. Moreover, WTP was positively related with trust and confidence in agency professionals, and negatively related with perceived risks associated with elk. WTP also varied according to resident dependence on land for income and demographic characteristics. Results shed light on the economic benefit of wildlife reintroduction programs and the importance of social-psychological factors such as risk perception, trust and confidence in enhancing support for conservation programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study is to estimate the potential safety benefits of Emergency Lane Keeping (ELK) and Autonomous Emergency Steering (AES) systems with precise and reliable lateral positioning. The material comprised in-depth studies of fatal road crashes in Sweden in 2017. Crashes resulting in passenger car occupant fatality (n = 114) were included; single vehicle (n = 60) and head-on (n = 31), intersection (n = 9), rear-end (n = 5), overtaking (n = 5), animal (n = 1), other (n = 1, U-turn), and train (n = 2). Additionally, fatal collisions between motor vehicles and vulnerable road users (VRUs) were included; pedestrians (n = 36), cyclists/moped users (n = 15), and motorcyclists (n = 17). A case-by-case analysis was conducted to identify crashes potentially prevented by ELK and AES with precise (within 0.1 m accuracy) and reliable lateral positioning. The identified crashes potentially avoided by ELK systems involved unintentional drift-out-of-lane on roads with posted speed limits of ≥70 km/h (43 mph). For comparison, the same material was used to identify the potential safety benefits of the more traditional lane departure warning (LDW) and Lane Keeping Assist (LKA) systems without enhanced lateral positioning. Crashes potentially avoided by LDW/LKA occurred on roads with visible lane markings and without rumble strips on the departure side while ELK with enhanced lateral positioning is not reliant on lane markings. Collisions potentially avoided by AES occurred on roads with sufficient escape zones and road friction. The study shows that ELK systems with enhanced lateral positioning could potentially avoid 33 − 45 (36 − 49%) out of 91 head-on and single car crashes resulting in passenger car occupant fatality, which corresponds to a further 18% (5/28) compared to traditional lane support (LDW/LKA) without enhanced lateral positioning. The improved lane keeping addresses crashes involving absent or nonvisible lane markings that are covered by snow. Furthermore, the study shows that the evasive steering features of AES systems with enhanced lateral positioning could potentially prevent 28 (54%) out of 52 collisions resulting in passenger car occupant fatalities (i.e., head-on, intersection, rear-end, overtaking, and animal collision). Additionally, AES with enhanced lateral positioning could potentially prevent 16 (31%) out of 51 collisions between motor vehicles and vulnerable road users resulting in fatally injured pedestrians, cyclists or moped users. The total potential safety benefits of AES include both lane keeping and evasive steering features including lane escaping. The study identified that the total number of crashes potentially avoided by AES corresponds to 42% out of all crashes resulting in passenger car occupant fatalities (n = 48/114). This is a first attempt to identify and quantify the increase in potential safety benefits, based on the assumption that robust lateral vehicle positioning has been applied to lane keeping as well as lane escaping. In addition to the potentially increased number of prevented crashes compared to traditional lane support, a robust lateral positioning system may have the potential to improve the redundancy in positioning systems. Previous research suggests several techniques to improve lateral vehicle positioning. However, further research is required, including testing for implementation of adequately improved lateral vehicle awareness to establish which techniques are appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fossil tracks should theoretically capture differences in pedal anatomy between growth stages of the same taxon, particularly those related to the soft tissue of the foot, providing a more realistic view of pedal ontogeny than skeletal material alone. However, recognizing these ontogenetic trajectories is complicated by the influence of preservation and kinematics on track morphology, as well as the inherent difficulty of referring different tracks to a single taxon. Here, we explore differences in track morphology from a collection of tracks attributed to tyrannosaurids from Unit 4 of the Wapiti Formation (upper Campanian) in western Canada. Along with morphology, close geographic and stratigraphic associations suggest that the tracks pertain to similar tyrannosaurid trackmakers. A geometric morphometric analysis of the track outlines reveals size-dependent increase in relative track robusticity, driven primarily by an increase in 'heel' breadth and surface area. This relationship is lost when the dataset is expanded to include tyrannosaurid tracks globally, which we attribute to increased stratigraphic and taxonomic 'noise' within the global dataset that masks the tightly constrained patterns obtained from the Wapiti Formation tracks. Although there is some substrate and kinematic influence on certain aspects of track morphology, we hypothesize that the observed size-dependent relationship reflects genuine expansion in the breadth of the heel soft tissues and probably their overall surface area associated with growth. Increased pedal robusticity likely assisted with weight bearing and locomotor stability as body mass increased over ontogeny, supporting previous hypotheses that some tyrannosaurids underwent a growth-related reduction in relative agility and/or cursorial performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After reconstruction of a highway section with three wildlife underpasses, but only limited wildlife exclusion fencing, elk (Cervus canadensis)-vehicle collisions (EVC) increased 21%. We retrofitted an existing 1-m right-of-way fence along 4.2 km, raising it to 2.2−2.4 m in height and tying it into underpasses at the project's east end. With no logical western fence terminus, we installed an animal-activated detection system (AADS) and motorist alert signage at a designated at-grade crosswalk to prevent collisions when animals crossed. Our goal was to achieve modified motorist behavior without long-term habituation while allowing wildlife to cross via the crosswalk, promoting highway safety and landscape connectivity. Before-project EVC (9.33/year) declined 97% after the new fencing. Our AADS achieved reduced vehicle speeds (13%) and increased motorist alertness (5.5-fold increase) with signs activated. Average speed reduction and braking response remained significantly higher with sign activation across all 9 years of our evaluation. Thus, our place- and time-specific AADS design successfully modified motorist behavior without habituation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife agencies balance the effectiveness of management with public acceptability. Past research has demonstrated stakeholders’ normative beliefs regarding management are influenced by the severity of the human-wildlife interaction, and the harshness of human response. Such beliefs may be more complex when public and private interests intertwine. In Montana, concerns about Brucellosis spreading from wild elk to domestic livestock prompted agencies to consider new management actions on private lands. We investigated how normative beliefs within stakeholder groups related to reciprocity between landowners and the public, and elk population status, using a linear mixed-effects analysis of mail survey responses. Proposed actions were considerably more acceptable in scenarios where landowners reciprocated with public hunting access, and where elk populations were abundant. Acceptability of lethal actions varied substantially across scenarios, indicating a need for a nuanced understanding of how stakeholders perceive different wildlife control measures, especially in private land contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Whereas low-frequency bellows (below 200 Hz) have been investigated in detail in both male and female domestic cattle (Bos taurus), male high-frequency bugle calls (over 800 Hz) have not been described so far in any large bovid species. In this study, high-frequency bugles and low-frequency bellows were recorded from three crossbred free-ranging domestic cattle bulls and analysed spectrographically. The maximum fundamental frequency of bellows was 113.6 Hz, whereas the maximum fundamental frequency of bugles was 958.4 Hz, ranging from 801 to 1125 Hz in different males. These amazingly high fundamental frequencies of bull bugles are comparable with those reported for Siberian wapitiCervus elaphus sibiricus, but lower than reported values for some subspecies of North American wapitiCervus canadensis. The similarity with both Siberian and North American wapiti was also observed in the production of bull biphonic bugles with two fundamental frequencies: the low and the high one. We suggest that bugles of domestic cattle bulls provide an excellent model for comparative research with cervid bugles concerning the mechanism of vocal production and the underlying anatomical and behavioural adaptations. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Gansu wapiti (Cervus elaphus kansuensis) is one of eight subspecies of wapiti in China, which has been placed under the second-ranked protected animals by Chinese government. No complete mitochondrial genomes of Gansu wapiti was determined until now, so the phylogenetic relationships among the subspecies of wapiti and other species of the genus Cervus have not been well studied. In this study, the complete mitochondrial genome of C. e. kansuensis was first sequenced and characterized. The genome is 16,430 bp in length, containing 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, two ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, and one noncoding control region (CR). Maximum-Likelihood (ML) and Bayesian Inference (BI) trees based on the 13 PCGs show that C. e. kansuensis is clustered with other wapiti subspecies in China except for C. e. yarkandensis. It is also shown that Cervus elaphus is not a monophyletic group. This study provides important molecular evidence for the phylogenetic relationship among species in the genus Cervus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The elk reduction program (elk hunt) in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, has been controversial since its inception in 1950. We interviewed 35 stakeholders and surveyed literature to understand participant perspectives in relation to ongoing conflict. Stakeholders held conflicting perspectives, problem definitions, and value orientations. Hunt opponents felt their interests were not reflected in decision making, while hunt proponents were dissatisfied with federal agency management. Agency officials focused on technical aspects of elk management (e.g., overpopulation, objectives) and did not address conflict driven by underlying value dynamics. Decisions made by the agencies (National Park Service, Wyoming Game and Fish Department) through the institution of wildlife management failed to integrate diverse interests. As a result, many nonagency participants felt disrespected by current decision-making arrangements. The long-term controversy has caused a persistent policy problem. We offer recommendations for how the social process could be better organized to build more effective governance and management. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Incidents of human–wildlife conflict can solidify participant perspectives and expectations, and reveal underlying social and institutional dynamics. We describe and analyze two incidents of conflict between hunters and grizzly bears in 2011 and 2012. Both incidents were associated with the controversial elk hunt in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. We gathered quotes from opinion-editorials and interviews, categorized quotes according to type, and used cluster analysis to identify discourses and associated coalitions of participants. We examined how participants defined problems, used evidence, and advocated solutions in relation to these incidents. Participant discourses addressed technical and procedural issues of regional wildlife management that extended beyond these incidents, revealing divergent expectations about wildlife management on public lands. Existing decision-making processes dominated by government agencies do not appear to be addressing these expectations. We recommend an integrative, outside appraisal of regional elk management to address conflict and support ecologically sound decision-making that serves common interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to enrich our knowledge of the nature and practices beyond the experience of the encounter between visitors and wild animals in a tourist setting such as a moose park. Drawing upon Walter Benjamin's distinction, the paper argues that the experience at Vittangi Moose Park is an Erfahrung, that is, a set of knowledge that becomes meaningful through its shared nature. The experience is created through a bodily and visual transaction between visitors and moose. Through touching, feeling, and feeding the moose, visitors wish to understand the animal and aim to establish a dialogue with it. By taking pictures and sharing them with friends and family at home, visitors not only consume places, landscapes, and experiences but also produce and reproduce them. The bodily and visual experiences thus come to represent a totalizing multi-sensual event in which the visitor experiences the animals actively, expressively, reflectively, and imaginatively. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Carbon and nitrogen isotopes in tissues can be used to understand plants consumed by various taxa, but can they provide additional information about consumers? Values of δ13C and δ15N were assessed from tissue of free-ranging elk (Cervus elaphus) occupying disparate habitats of mixed prairie-oak savannah that contained C3agricultural crops in a C4-dominated landscape and in key plants consumed by elk. Muscle and hoof samples were collected from female and male elk in two subpopulations (forested land and grassland) from private land and one subpopulation from the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge (refuge) in 2001–2006. Previous research identified differences between mean muscle δ13C and δ15N and mean hoof δ13C and δ15N indicating that isotopes differed between tissues of varying metabolic activity. Mean δ13C in hoof of elk on forested land and grassland were lower than hoof δ13C from elk in the refuge indicating greater long-term consumption of C3plants by elk on forested land and grassland subpopulations. The δ15N in hoof was greater for elk outside the refuge than that for elk in the refuge. Interaction of sex and subpopulation only occurred for hoof δ15N suggesting that factors such as tissue type, sex, and habitat need to be considered to understand free-ranging ecology of generalist herbivores using stable isotopes. Availability of C3agricultural crops high in percent nitrogen on a nearly annual basis in a C4-dominated landscape was likely driving differences in tissue δ13C and δ15N among subpopulations of free-ranging elk. An increase in tissue δ15N resulted from an increase in the consumption of higher δ15N in forage for sexes and subpopulations of a free-ranging ungulate in North America but δ15N should be further evaluated as an index of nutrition for subpopulations of generalist herbivores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We tested the reliability and utility of students, Grades 1-8, to count mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus elephus) along rural school bus routes in Kittitas County, Washington, from 2003 to 2004 as part of an investigation on wildlife response to rural development. Student and supervisor counts of deer and elk were similar (α = .05). Student involvement was sustained by the presence of the supervisor and by providing a three-tiered incentives package to encourage participation. Our results demonstrate that students provide an opportunity for cost-effective long-term monitoring of changes in ungulate distribution along public transit routes. Beside providing information needed by wildlife managers, students and the community can benefit by increasing their ecological literacy and community participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dynamic behavior of complex adaptive spatial systems is driven by interactions that occur among system components. The proper representation of individual-individual and individual-environment interaction in agent-based simulations of such systems is, therefore, of paramount importance to model design. In this article we develop and implement a context-driven, agent-based modeling approach that supports the explicit representation of situation-dependent information for decision making within dynamic spatial environments. This context-driven approach is characterized by the identification of primitive contextual elements, the organization of such elements into context patterns, and contextualized learning. We synthesize two existing frameworks for the representation of spatiotemporal context and extend them to include higher level constructs and feedback mechanisms needed for learning and adaptation. Contextualized information is organized, analyzed, and used by agents to enhance their problem-solving capabilities. Dynamically changing information relevant to the decision-making processes of agents is captured in this approach and used to drive spatiotemporal learning in agents. We examine the utility of this context-driven approach via an agent-based model of elk movement. Elk in this model are represented as contextually aware intelligent agents that learn optimal movement patterns and adapt to heterogeneous landscape dynamics. The internal and external stimuli received by elk during migration are incorporated into the representation of agent context. The context-driven approach, as experimental results indicate, provides solid support for the representation of individual-centric interactions within complex adaptive spatial systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a case study on the diagnosis given to 520 elk suffering chronic illness, weight loss and emaciation and mortality. It was found that imbalances in selenium and copper and nutritional inadequacy were observed as well as increased level of abosomal pH and abomasal lesions. The animals were found to be suffering from fading elk syndrome or abomasal parasite syndrome.

This study used 15N natural abundance techniques to investigate whether elk herbivory affects the capability of willow (Salix spp.) and reed-grass (Carex spp.) to access N from groundwater in upper and lower landscape positions within riparian areas of the Rocky Mountain National Park. For this, δ15N values of plant, soil, rainfall and groundwater samples were measured within a replicated field experiment. Despite the relatively high variability in the 15N data, it provided evidence of the effects of grazing and lanscape position on plant N sources. Carex seemed to acquire less groundwater N in upper landscape positions compared to Salix, maybe due to the deeper willow rooting system. However, grazed willows in upper landscape positions seemed to acquire less groundwater N as compared to willows protected from herbivory. These findings were in accordance with other isotopic and non-isotopic studies conducted in the same experimental site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study a travel cost model is used to estimate the value of elk viewing at the Jewell Meadows Wildlife Area in Oregon. Jewell Meadows was originally established to provide winter browse and supplemental feeding for elk to reduce damage to nearby agricultural and forest land. However, because visitors are virtually guaranteed the opportunity to see large numbers of elk at close range, Jewell Meadows has also become a popular wildlife viewing site. We estimated total access value for the 2007 winter feeding season to be $6.5 million, which exceeds Jewell Meadows' annual operating budget of approximately $200,000. Results suggest that visitors highly value the assured wildlife viewing that Jewell Meadows offers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opportunities to see elk and bison draw visitors from around the world to Grand Teton National Park. We compare two different approaches to estimating the effect that changes in elk and bison populations would have on visitation to the park. The first approach is a multiple-regression analysis of how actual visitation has changed with past changes in elk and bison populations. This is compared to survey estimates of visitor trip-making behavior conditional on proposed changes in elk and bison populations. The revealed preference regression visitation estimates and survey intended visitation estimates are generally within 10% of each other. This suggests that intended visitation behavior gathered from surveys is a reasonably accurate predictor of actual behavior for general recreation trips involving wildlife viewing. Such predictive tools can prove useful to managers in determining in advance how their actions impact visitation to a park. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article links intended National Park visitation estimates to regional economic models to calculate the employment impacts of alternative bison and elk management strategies. The survey described alternative National Elk Refuge (NER) management actions and the effects on elk and bison populations at the NER and adjacent Grand Teton National Park (GTNP). Park visitors were then asked if they would change their number of visits with each potential management action. Results indicate there would be a 10% decrease in visitation if bison populations were reduced from 600 to 400 animals and elk populations were reduced in GTNP and the NER. The related decrease in jobs in Teton counties of Wyoming and Idaho is estimated at 5.5%. Adopting a "no active management" option of never feeding elk and bison on the NER yields about one-third the current bison population (200 bison) and about half the elk population. Visitors surveyed about this management option would take about 20% fewer trips, resulting in an 11.3% decrease in employment. Linking intended visitation surveys and regional economic models represents a useful tool for natural resource planners who must present the consequences of potential actions in Environmental Impact Statements and plans to the public and decision makers prior to any action being implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fire, especially stand replacing fire, poses a threat to many threatened and endangered species as well as their habitat. On the other hand, fire is important in maintaining a variety of successional stages that can be important for other animals such as elk. Methods are given here on a variety of ways to approach risk assessment to assist in prioritizing areas for allocation of fire mitigation funds. One example looks at assessing risk to the species and biotic communities of concern followed by the Colorado Natural Heritage Program. One looks at the risk to Mexican spotted owls. Another looks at the risk to cutthroat trout, and a fourth considers the general effects of fire and elk. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Presents a study which looks at the abundance of bison, elk and pronghorn that can be found on the Southern Plains. Background on each of these animals; Details on the methods used in this study.

This article reports that a growing body of evidence shows that the near extinction of the gray wolf across most of the U.S. West has triggered a cascade of ecological effects on everything from elk populations to the health of willows and other tree species and vegetation. Forestry scientists at Oregon State University (OSU) have replicated an earlier study conducted at Yellowstone National Park in the neighboring Gallatin National Forest to show that the ecological significance of wolves is only partly due to the direct impact they have on their prey. Just as important is the fear that they induce in elk and other grazing animals--and the resulting behavioral changes. OSU scientists previously reported that once wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park in 1995 and 1996, they hunted elk most successfully where they faced a change in terrain, such as a stream. "When you remove the wolves, the elk are able to browse unimpeded wherever they want, as long as they want," says report coauthor and professor emeritus Robert Beschta. Thus, sites naturally rich in aspen, cottonwood, and other streamside vegetation were decimated with the removal of wolves from the park in the 1920s: Elk moved in, ate young trees before they could become established, and the entire riparian ecosystem began a slow demise. In their latest work, OSU researchers have identified the same pattern along the Gallatin River in southwestern Montana, where wolves have roamed since their reintroduction in 1996.