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The incidence of paediatric fractures among winter sport athletes is not adequately studied. Our objective was to categorize fractures that occurred in paediatric skiers and snowboarders at a single ski resort. X-rays of 756 skiers/snowboarders aged 3–17 diagnosed with a fracture were categorized using the Salter-Harris (SH) classification. SH fractures were seen in 158 (21%) patients, with 123 (77%) being Type II. There were no significant differences between patients with a SH fracture and patients with a non-SH fracture for age, sex, snowboarding or skiing, mechanism of injury, terrain or the resort conditions on the day of injury. The most common mechanism of injury was falling onto snow while collisions resulted in more severe injuries. Compared to fractures without growth plate involvement, a higher proportion of SH fractures were seen in the humerus, radius, fibula and thumb; a lower proportion of SH fractures were observed at the tibia and clavicle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined post-concussion symptom presentation, exercise, and sleep among pediatric athletes who sustained concussion during the school year vs. summer months. We evaluated athletes 6–18 years old within 21-days of concussion. They reported symptoms (Health and Behavior Inventory), with cognitive/somatic domain sub-scores calculated, and indicated if they had exercised or experienced sleep problems since injury. We grouped patients by injury season: summer months (June–August) vs. school year (September–May). 350 patients (14.4 ± 2.4 years old; 37% female; initial visit 8.8 ± 5.3 days post-concussion) were seen for care: 24% sustained a concussion during summer months, 76% during the school year. Lower cognitive (median = 7 [IQR = 1, 15] vs. 9.5 [4, 17]; p = 0.01), but not somatic (7 [2.5, 11] vs. 8 [4, 13]; p = 0.06), HBI scores were observed for patients injured during the summer. Groups were similar in proportion exercising (16% vs 17%) and endorsing sleep problems (29% vs 31%). After adjustments, sustaining a concussion during the summer predicted total (β=-3.43; 95%CI = −6.50, −0.36; p = 0.029) and cognitive (β = -2.29; 95%CI = −4.22, −0.36; p = 0.02), but not somatic (β=-1.46; 95%CI = −2.84, −0.08; p = 0.04), symptom severity. Pediatric patients with concussion may present with greater cognitive symptoms during the school year, compared to summer months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers have recommended that youth athletes limit their practice volume to the number of hours/week that they are old in years. We examined sport perceptions, burnout, anxiety, and depressive symptoms among youth athletes who did and did not report playing more hours/week of organized sports than their age. Uninjured athletes aged 13–18 years old completed questionnaires documenting demographics, sport participation volume, health and injury history, depressive symptoms, anxiety, burnout, and sport perceptions during a pre-participation physical examination. We grouped participants as those who reported more hours/week in organized sports than their age (exceeds age/volume recommendation) vs. those who reported equal/less hours/week in organized sports than their age (meets age/volume recommendation). Of 161 participants, 21% (n = 33) were in the 'exceeds age/volume recommendation' group (age = 15.2 ± 1.3 years; 55% female; 18.7 ± 4.0 hours/week) and 79% (n = 128) were in the 'meets age/volume recommendation' group (age = 15.6 ± 1.2 years; 50% female; 10.2 ± 3.4 hours/week). A higher proportion of the 'exceeds age/volume recommendation' group agreed with the statement 'youth in my sport play too many games before college' than the 'meets age/volume recommendation' group (33% vs. 16%; p = 0.03). After adjusting for the effect of age, sport specialization level, and weight, exceeding age/volume recommendations was associated with the perception that youth in sports play too many games before college (aOR = 3.24; 95% CI = 1.26, 8.29; p = 0.01), while burnout (aOR = 0.99; 95% CI = 0.94, 1.06; p = 0.93), anxiety (aOR = 0.97; 95% CI = 0.84, 1.11; p = 0.65), and depressive symptoms (aOR = 0.90; 95% CI = 0.74, 1.10; p = 0.30) were not significantly related. Athletes who spend more hours in sport than their age appear to perceive their competition load during youth sports to be excessive. Coaches and providers should monitor athlete's training hours and perceptions of competition load to offer support and potentially prevent burnout development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the clinical presentation (using PCSS), mechanism of injury, and recovery time of concussions sustained by gymnasts. A retrospective chart review was performed at Boston Children's Hospital: Sports Medicine Clinic. Patients were identified with the words 'gymnastics' and 'concussion.' Male and female gymnasts were included if they sustained a concussion during gymnastics training or competition and were between the ages of 6–22 years old. Sex, age, injury site, diagnosis, mechanism of injury, and time to presentation are described. Patients were compared during different types of gymnastics events for overall symptom burden, and individual symptom severities. A total of 201 charts were assessed over a 6-year period and 62 patients met inclusion criteria. Floor exercise was the most common event at the time of injury. Loss of consciousness occurred in 20% of injuries. There was no significant association between the type of event and PCSS upon initial clinical visit (p = 0.82). A total of 13 gymnasts returned to the clinic for a subsequent injury after their concussion (Table 3). Gymnasts are at risk for sport-related concussions. Most gymnasts reporting to a tertiary care center with the diagnosis of concussion sustain their injuries during floor exercise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To determine if sleep quality, fatigue, anxiety, depressive symptoms, or perceptions of sport participation differ between high-, moderate-, and low-specialized high school athletes with or without prior injuries. During pre-participation physical examinations (PPE), high school athletes completed questionnaires on sport specialization level, history of time-loss orthopedic injury, perceptions of sport participation, as well as sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI)), fatigue, anxiety, and depressive symptoms (Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS®)). Athletes were grouped according to sport specialization level and history of prior time-loss orthopedic injury. A total of 186 athletes completed the study: 49% (n = 92; mean age = 15.3 ± 2.0 yrs; 50% female) were low specialized, 34% (n = 64; mean age = 15.3 ± 1.3 yrs; 47% female) were moderately specialized, and 16% (n = 30; mean age = 15.7 ± 1.1 yrs; 57% female) were highly specialized. Groups were similar for demographics, training volume, and injury history. Compared to the moderate-specialization group, highly specialized athletes reported higher levels of fatigue (3.1 ± 3.7 vs. 1.5 ± 2.2; p = 0.02), anxiety (3.6 ± 4.1 vs. 1.8 ± 2.6; p = 0.02), and depressive symptoms (2.4 ± 4.0 vs. 0.8 ± 2.0; p = 0.02). No differences in psychometric ratings, sleep quality, or perceptions of sport participation were observed between the low/moderate- or low/high-specialization groups. We did not observe any significant differences between groups who did and did not report a history of prior time-loss orthopedic injury. Highly specialized high school athletes report higher levels of fatigue, more anxiety symptoms, and more depressive symptoms than their moderately specialized peers, despite no differences in training volume or injury history. Low specialized athletes did not differ from moderately specialized or highly specialized athletes in the aforementioned domains, and there were no differences in sleep quality across specialization groups. These findings add to the current body of literature on early sport specialization by illustrating the distinctive psychosocial implications of sport specialization and demonstrating the need for further prospective research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Gymnastics is a popular sport with high injury rates, especially at the collegiate level. There is limited evidence, however, regarding the risks of early specialization in this sport, the rate of concussions in gymnasts, and the long-term effects of disordered eating in gymnasts. We sought to describe health-related outcomes of former collegiate gymnasts and the association with early sport specialization, concussion history, and disordered eating. Methods: We distributed an online survey through social media outlets. A total of 473 former female collegiate gymnasts completed the survey and were grouped according to early (<14 years) specialization, presence or absence of concussion history, and history of disordered eating. We determined the number of participants who had time-loss injuries, injuries requiring surgery, and injuries resulting in retirement. We also evaluated menstrual history, reasons for sport retirement, functional outcome measures, and mental health. Results: The median age of gymnastics specialization was 8 years [interquartile range = 6–11 years]. The proportion of injuries sustained during college did not significantly differ by specialization age. A significantly greater proportion of early specializers required surgery for college sports-related injuries (60% vs. 44%; p = 0.02). Forty-two percent of the respondents reported concussion history, and a greater proportion of those with concussion history reported seeking mental health treatment during college (32% vs. 23%; p = 0.03), and anxiety disorder diagnosis (16% vs. 9%; p = 0.01). Disordered eating history was reported by 34% of the respondents, and this group had a higher proportion of time-loss injury (78% vs 65%; p = 0.004), and osteoporosis (4% vs 0%; p = 0.003) during college, and worse current pain (11.5 vs 10.2; p = 0.007) and physical function (12.2 vs 11.0; p = 0.01) than those without disordered eating. Conclusion: Athletes and clinicians should be aware of the long-term effects of early specialization, concussions, and disordered eating in gymnastics as these issues are common in female collegiate gymnasts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To examine the association between Post-Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS) scores, Convergence Insufficiency Symptom Survey (CISS) scores, and oculomotor deficits post-concussion. Records of adolescent patients examined in a multidisciplinary concussion clinic between July 2014 and May 2019 were reviewed. PCSS and CISS scores, results of eye examination and oculomotor assessment, concussion history, and demographics were abstracted. One hundred and forty patient records (median age, 15.3 years; 52 males, presented 109 days (median) from their most recent concussion) met inclusion criteria. Mean total scores on PCSS and CISS were 46.67 ± 25.89 and 27.13 ± 13.22, respectively, and were moderately correlated with each other (r = 0.53, p <.001). Oculomotor deficits were observed in 123 (88%) patients. Step-wise linear regression identified increased PCSS total score to be significantly associated with decreased amplitude of accommodation (p <.001). Increased CISS total score was significantly associated with receded near point of convergence, developmental eye movement test error scores, and cause of concussion. High PCSS scores may indicate an accommodation deficit and thus prompt an oculomotor assessment in patients following a concussion. Using the CISS and a detailed oculomotor assessment may reveal underlying oculomotor deficits, which may benefit from treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Pediatric primary care sports medicine physicians and pediatric sports medicine orthopedic surgeons, in conjunction with physician assistants (PAs), often manage patients with fractures. We sought to determine if pediatric patients with fractures seen by primary care sports medicine physicians had similar outcomes and satisfaction as those seen by orthopedic surgeons. Methods: We performed a retrospective chart review of four to 18-year-old patients who were treated by a sports medicine provider (primary care or orthopedic surgeon/PA) for a fracture of the radius, ulna, tibia, or fibula. Patients or their parents completed a patient satisfaction survey (Short Assessment of Patient Satisfaction [SAPS]) and an injury location-specific patient-reported functional outcome tool: the Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM) or the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH) Scale. Results: Fifty-seven (70%) of the 82 patients were treated by pediatric primary care sports medicine physicians and 25 (30%) were treated by a pediatric sports medicine orthopedic surgeon or surgical PA. The median time from injury to clinically confirmed healing was similar between the two groups (47 vs 60.5 days; p = 0.54), as was the patient satisfaction (SAPS median score = 26 [range = 19–28] vs 24 [range = 9–28]; p = 0.12). Patient-reported outcomes did not differ significantly between groups for the functional outcome tools. Conclusions: Patients seen by pediatric primary care sports medicine physicians and sports medicine orthopedic surgeons have similar patient-reported fracture outcomes and similar satisfaction with care. Pediatric patients with fractures will likely have favorable outcomes when cared for by either of these subspecialty providers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To evaluate the source of employment of athletic trainers (ATs), access to team physicians, and usage of up-to-date (implementation of the most current international sports medicine societies' position statements and evidence-based literature policy and procedure manuals in secondary schools. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study among National Athletic Trainers' Association (NATA) members. NATA 'Research Survey Request' was contacted to obtain 1,000 e-mail addresses of ATs who actively worked in the secondary school setting. We evaluated AT employment, access to team physicians, and usage of up-to-date policy and procedure manuals within different residential areas (urban, suburban, and rural) and school distinctions (public vs. private). Results: Two-hundred ninety-six responses were received (30% response rate). The majority (72%) of ATs reported having an assigned team physician for their school. Approximately one-third (36%) of ATs reported being employed by a hospital, clinic, or outreach facility. Fifty-one percent of ATs reported having a policy and procedure manual that was developed and reviewed with their team physician. There was a significantly greater amount of suburban ATs who reported having an up-to-date policy and procedure manual (urban 45% vs. suburban 60% vs. rural 39%; p = 0.007). Significantly more ATs who were employed in a public school setting reported conducting annual policy and procedure manual reviews than those employed in private school settings (public 63% vs. private 49%; p = 0.045). Conclusions: The majority of ATs have assigned team physicians and a third is employed by a medical group. A high number of ATs reported not having a policy and procedure manual that was developed and reviewed with their team physician. Sports medicine teams within secondary schools, particularly in private schools, should strive to develop and maintain an up-to-date policy and procedure manual that is frequently reviewed with their team physician. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of our investigation was to compare post-concussion symptom profiles and postural control measures among female youth artistic athletes (gymnasts and cheerleaders) relative to female ball sport athletes (volleyball or basketball). We compared 27 artistic athletes (median age = 15.0 years; evaluated median = 13 days post-injury) and 49 ball sport athletes (median age = 15.3 years; evaluated median = 10 days post-injury) within 21 days of sustaining a concussion on measures of symptom profiles and postural control (Balance Error Scoring System [BESS]), tandem gait, and Romberg tests. After adjusting for the independent effect of time from injury-evaluation, concussion history, and pre-morbid migraine history, we observed that artistic athletes performed the BESS tandem stance foam condition with fewer errors than ball sport athletes (β = −2.4; 95% CI = −4.7, −0.2; p =.03). Artistic athletes demonstrated a higher, yet not statistically significant, headache severity than ball sport athletes (median = 4.5 vs 4.0, p =.07). Overall, artistic athletes had similar symptom profiles to ball sport athletes. Postural control measures, other than the BESS tandem stance foam condition, were not significantly different from ball sport athletes. This suggests that although their sports may require higher levels of balance, artistic athletes' performance on post-concussion balance tests may be similar to athletes of other disciplines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine the effect of prior concussion history on cognitive test performance and concussion symptom reporting among adolescent youth rugby league athletes.Participants: Participants were male elite level youth rugby league players (N = 73; Mean Age = 15.8; SD = 0.9; range = 14–18 years).Main Outcome Measure: CogSport performance based on participants group; those who reported no previous concussions (n = 30),1–2 previous concussions (n = 19), and ≥3 previous concussions (n = 29).Results: 73 participants with valid CogSport scores were included in the cognitive analyses. All participants were included in the symptom analyses. There were no differences between the groups with 0,1–2, or ≥3 previous concussions for processing speed, attention, learning, or working memory. There was atrend for those with multiple prior concussions to report more baseline preseason symptoms.Conclusions: There were no differences in scores on the CogSport test among those with ahistory of 0,1–2, or ≥3 prior concussions. Consistent with prior studies, youth with ahistory of multiple past concussions are more likely to endorse baseline preseason symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Our was objectives were to (1) assess the validity of a smartphone-based application to obtain spatiotemporal gait variables relative to an established movement monitoring system used previously to evaluate post-concussion gait, and (2) determine the test-retest reliability of gait variables obtained with a smartphone. Methods: Twenty healthy participants (n = 14 females, mean age = 22.2, SD = 2.1 years) were assessed at two time points, approximately two weeks apart. Two measurement systems (inertial sensor system, smartphone application) acquired and analyzed single-task and dual-task spatio-temporal gait variables simultaneously. Our primary outcome measures were average walking speed (m/s), cadence (steps/min), and stride length (m) measured by the inertial sensor system and smartphone application. Results: Correlations between the systems were high to very high (Pearson r = 0.77–0.98) at both time points, with the exception of dual-task stride length at time 2 (Pearson r = 0.55). Bland-Altman analysis for average gait speed and cadence indicated the average disagreement between systems was close to zero, suggesting little evidence for systematic bias between acquisition systems. Test-retest consistency measures using the smartphone revealed high to very high reliability for all measurements (ICC = 0.81–0.95). Conclusions: Our results indicate that sensors within a smartphone are capable of measuring spatio-temporal gait variables similar to a validated three-sensor inertial sensor system in single-task and dual-task conditions, and that data are reliable across a two-week time interval. A smartphone-based application might allow clinicians to objectively evaluate gait in the management of concussion with high ease-of-use and a relatively low financial burden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Recent studies indicated greater risk of overuse injuries among young female athletes than their male counterparts. However, few studies have focused on female athletes and the effect of single-sport participation on lower extremity overuse injuries. Objective: The objective of this study is to identify an independent risk variable for lower extremity overuse injuries based on status of sport participations (single- and multisports) in young female athletes. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 12–18-year-old female athletes were asked to complete electronic questionnaires describing their current sport participation and previous injury history. Range of motion (ROM), muscular strength, and performance parameters were measured at the time of completion of electronic questionnaires. Potential risk variables were compared between single- and multisport athletes and entered into a logistic regression model. Adjusted odds ratio (aOR), 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs), and p values were recorded to find an association with increased likelihood of lower extremity overuse injuries. Results: The study cohort comprised 236 female young athletes (single-sport athletes: N = 60, multisport athletes: N = 176). A few variables including age, BMI, weekly hours of training for a sport, knee ROM, ankle ROM, and knee extensor strength were identified as potential risk variables. A logistic regression analysis showed an independent association between increased weekly hours of training for a sport and greater likelihood of histories of lower extremity overuse injuries (aOR = 1.091, 95% CIs: 1.007–1.183, p =.034). Conclusion: Although status of single- or multisports participation was not a significant risk variable, increased training volume was found to be an independent contributing factor for greater likelihood of lower extremity overuse injury histories in 12–18 years female athletes. The current study identified that single-sport athletes trained nearly twice as many hours per week when compared to multisport athletes, which may explain an underlying mechanism of sports specialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To investigate the association between dual-task gait performance and brain network activation (BNA) using an electroencephalography (EEG)-based Go/No-Go paradigm among children and adolescents with concussion. Methods: Participants with a concussion completed a visual Go/No-Go task with collection of electroencephalogram brain activity. Data were treated with BNA analysis, which involves an algorithmic approach to EEG-ERP activation quantification. Participants also completed a dual-task gait assessment. The relationship between dual-task gait speed and BNA was assessed using multiple linear regression models. Results: Participants (n = 20, 13.9 ± 2.3 years of age, 50% female) were tested at a mean of 7.0 ± 2.5 days post-concussion and were symptomatic at the time of testing (post-concussion symptom scale = 40.4 ± 21.9). Slower dual-task average gait speed (mean = 82.2 ± 21.0 cm/s) was significantly associated with lower relative time BNA scores (mean = 39.6 ± 25.8) during the No-Go task (β = 0.599, 95% CI = 0.214, 0.985, p = 0.005, R2 = 0.405), while controlling for the effect of age and gender. Conclusion: Among children and adolescents with a concussion, slower dual-task gait speed was independently associated with lower BNA relative time scores during a visual Go/No-Go task. The relationship between abnormal gait behaviour and brain activation deficits may be reflective of disruption to multiple functional abilities after concussion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: studies that investigate risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries in female youth athletes are limited, especially related to training attributes and position status. Objective: to determine risk factors including training attributes and position status for a self-reported musculoskeletal injury history in female youth soccer players. Methods: we conducted a cross-sectional study of young female soccer players (mean age: 13.6 ± 2.3 years). we asked about their history of musculoskeletal injuries using an electronic questionnaire. the proportion of young female soccer players with and without a history of soccer-related musculoskeletal injuries were compared based on physical characteristics, training attributes, position status (single vs. multiple), lower extremity strength, and joint laxity. a binary logistic regression analysis was used to generate, and adjusted odds ratios adjusted for potential co-variates (aor). a 95% confidence interval (95%ci) that did not cross one or p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results: a total of 160 young female soccer players (mean age: 13.6 ± 2.3 years) participated in the study. an independent association was found between prior musculoskeletal injuries and older ages (aor: 1.60, 95%ci: 1.17, 2.20, p = 0.004), higher weight (aor: 1.10, 95%ci: 1.01, 1.20, p = 0.026), and greater bmi (aor: 1.43, 95%ci: 1.07, 1.90, p = 0.014). Conclusions: musculoskeletal injuries were associated with age, weight, and bmi in female youth players. the current study indicates that maintaining proper body composition may be beneficial to reduce musculoskeletal injuries among female youth soccer players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) has been documented as a useful way to evaluate postural control following sport-related concussions sustained by youth athletes. However, limitations have been reported with its use due to the reliance on visual observation as the primary measurement outcome. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between the modified BESS (mBESS) as rated by a clinician and a simultaneous analysis performed by an integrated video-force plate system. The secondary purpose was to assess if a history of prior concussion affected postural control. Methods: A group of healthy youth athletes (n = 398; mean age 13.7 ± 2.4 years) completed the mBESS while simultaneously undergoing an integrated video-force plate evaluation to measure postural stability. Spearman rank-order correlations were used to determine the strength of correlation between the 2 rating systems. In addition, performance on the mBESS between those with and without a history of concussion was compared using univariate ANCOVAs. Results: A moderately high correlation was found during single-leg stance (ρ = -0.64,p< .001), while a weak correlation was found during tandem stance (ρ = -0.30,p< .001). No postural control differences were found between groups with and without a concussion history. Conclusion: The video-force plate rating system correlates well with the clinician rating during the single-leg stance of the mBESS, but not during double-leg or tandem stances. A history of concussion did not affect mBESS scores. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Museums have long served as a source of inspiration for horror and fiction writers. The cultural institutions maintain an aura of mystery, making them the ideal setting for stories of the macabre. Graphic novel authors have also made liberal use of these buildings as setting, and make frequent use of museum employees as key figures in narrative development. What though, is the role of the museum as depicted in graphic novels? What function do they play, and how are museum employees represented? Does the graphic novel offer a way in which museums can reach out to and develop new audiences, or will the medium serve only to confuse and mislead potential visitors about the reality of museums? [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Primary objective: To evaluate excitability and inhibition of the motor cortex acutely and longitudinally following mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Research design: A longitudinal paired case-control design was used to examine cortical excitability and inhibition in 15 adults who had sustained an mTBI (mean age = 20.8 ± 1.2 years) and 15 matched control participants (mean age = 21.1 ± 1.3 years). Methods and procedures: Participants visited the lab within 72 hours of injury and again at 1, 2, 4 and 8 weeks post-injury. During each visit, transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to examine resting motor threshold (RMT), motor evoked potential peak-to-peak amplitude (MEPamp) and cortical silent period (CSP) duration of the first dorsal interosseous muscle. Main outcomes and results: There were no differences between groups in RMT ( p = 0.10) or MEPamp ( p = 0.22) at 72 hours post-injury or across the 2-month testing period ( p ≥ 0.68), indicating similar cortical excitability. However, the CSP duration was higher in individuals with mTBI, indicating greater intra-cortical inhibition compared with the control group at 72 hours post-injury ( p = 0.03) and throughout the 2 months of recovery ( p = 0.009). Conclusions: mTBI appeared to have little effect on cortical excitability, but an acute and long-lasting effect on intra-cortical inhibition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With micro data from the US Census for 1980 and 1990, we document the growth of recent immigrants across New York metropolitan area job structure and test for the effects of recent immigrants on mean job earnings for native-born white, black and Hispanic male workers. During the 1980s foreign-born workers increased from 31 to almost 50 per cent of all workers in 'secondary' jobs, the lowest paying jobs that employ about one-third of the region's workforce. While employment trends for nativeborn minorities and recent immigrants were positively related among the best professional, managerial and technical jobs in the 1980s, there is evidence of replacement for all three native-born groups in the less skilled (subordinate primary and secondary) parts of the metropolitan job structure. We find negative effects of the growth in recent immigrant share of job employment on the change in earnings for white and black native-born groups, but little or no overall effect on Hispanic workers or recent immigrants themselves. Downward wage effects were strongest in secondary jobs for black men and among good blue-collar jobs (subordinate primary) jobs for Hispanic men. Among the best jobs, recent immigrants show higher wage growth where their employment growth was fastest, suggested a positive 'niche' effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the effect of technological innovations on the demand for skilled labor. In the United States, workers faced falling real wages, growing shares of low-wage jobs, sharply increasing earnings inequality, and declining job benefits and job security. The two developments--technological change and worsening labor market outcomes for low-skill workers--have been linked together by both academicians and policymakers to form what may be termed a technology-induced skill-mismatch story. Management skills, education, and training attainments have failed to keep pace with the requirements of a more technologically advanced economy. All countries have experienced a shift in demand away from unskilled jobs toward more highly skilled jobs. Making workers smarter should be a top priority, but even massive investment in education and training will not, by itself, have much impact on the distribution of earnings--certainly not in the next decade. Besides, most jobs will continue to require less than a college degree. A labor market that increasingly offers poverty-wage jobs to these workers provides them with little incentive to invest in education and training--no matter how well we design and implement the programs.