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We develop a conceptual framework to understand linkages between water access and livelihood outcomes. We apply the framework to assess factors altering the likelihood of household indebtedness in rural Nepal, using survey data and probit statistical models. Controlling for different household characteristics, results show that in Nepal's Kamala basin, an additional month of water adequate to sustain crops decreases by 5% the likelihood that an average household in our sample reports high indebtedness. We complement our findings by discussing interacting drivers of agricultural livelihood outcomes; options to improve water availability and access; and geographical targeting of investment in water access. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) is a rich region in agrobiodiversity. As elsewhere in the world, agrobiodiversity is declining in this region, and this is impacting the functioning of ecosystems and has profound implications for agricultural sustainability and food security. Today, the challenge faced by the global community is how to slow or reverse the present trend of loss of agrobiodiversity to safeguard future food supplies. Taking examples from the HKH, this paper explores the link between agrobiodiversity and food security, identifies the key issues and challenges to maintaining agrobiodiversity, and explores potentials and opportunities for improving agrobiodiversity that are conducive to maintaining and increasing food security, ecosystem services, and agricultural sustainability, and thus building resilience. The paper concludes that urgent action and an integrated landscape approach are required, bringing together multiple stakeholders, and integrates agrobiodiversity in national policies and programmes. Appropriate economic measures should be developed to encourage local people to use the Himalayan biodiversity sustainably as a basis to achieve food security and agricultural sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Asia is energy-poor, water-stressed, and food-deficient, and these problems are expected to intensify with high population growth, rapid economic growth and industrialization, urbanization, and changing climate. Although the water, energy, and food security challenges are interconnected, they are dealt with in isolation, which fails to address the challenge of trade-offs and exacerbates the problems. The increased resource scarcity underlines the need for integrated solutions which ensure optimal resource use and maximize benefits. This article uses a nexus perspective to explore possible integrated solutions that support multiple uses of water at different scales and times. The analysis shows that the potential of water resources is underdeveloped and synergies between water, energy, and food are not fully harnessed. With proper coordination and management, water resources can generate multiple benefits for both upstream and downstream areas, including regional public goods such as regional connectivity and flood and drought management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cryosphere provides multiple services to society, but mountain cryosphere is shrinking at an alarming rate worldwide due to climate change, threatening natural and human systems. Adaptation to cryosphere change is essential to avoid irreversible damage and to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Although documenting adaptation actions and challenges is vital for preparing and implementing adaptation strategies, efforts to document and understand current adaptation practices specifically in response to cryosphere change have been limited. This paper synthesizes adaptation actions currently practiced in the mountain ranges of the Andes, Alps, Pamir, Tien Shan and Himalaya in response to cryosphere change, discusses common constraints and suggests actions for creating an enabling environment for adaptation. It identifies various adaptation measures adopted by different actors. These range from changing current practices and behaviour at household level to collaborative monitoring at regional level. However, most adaptation measures are autonomous, narrowly focused and short term, without adequate planning and government support. The physical challenges of mountain terrain, low adaptive capacities, limited knowledge and high uncertainty about future risks constrain widespread adoption of adaptation measures. Further research is needed to better understand factors influencing adaptation actions, and the policy options and responses that can overcome existing barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed an impact of bay leaf value chain intervention programme on household welfare in mountain agroforestry context. We used primary survey data from project and comparison villages and propensity score matching for creating a valid counterfactual. Results indicate that households in the project villages planted 75 per cent more bay leaf trees, produced 170 per cent more bay leaves and sold more quality products at higher prices than households in comparison villages; per-capita household income increased by NPR 5000-7300, share of bay leaf income in total household income increased by 8-10 per cent and level of poverty declined by 6-8 per cent. Households with female respondents benefited more in some aspects but not so in others, especially in enrolling children in school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing countries face a difficult challenge in meeting the growing demands for food, water, and energy, which is further compounded by climate change. Effective adaptation to change requires the efficient use of land, water, energy, and other vital resources, and coordinated efforts to minimize trade-offs and maximize synergies. However, as in many developing countries, the policy process in South Asia generally follows a sectoral approach that does not take into account the interconnections and interdependence among the three sectors. Although the concept of a water–energy–food nexus is gaining currency, and adaptation to climate change has become an urgent need, little effort has been made so far to understand the linkages between the nexus perspective and adaptation to climate change. Using the Hindu Kush Himalayan region as an example, this article seeks to increase understanding of the interlinkages in the water, energy, and food nexus, explains why it is important to consider this nexus in the context of adaptation responses, and argues that focusing on trade-offs and synergies using a nexus approach could facilitate greater climate change adaptation and help ensure food, water, and energy security by enhancing resource use efficiency and encouraging greater policy coherence. It concludes that a nexus-based adaption approach – which integrates a nexus perspective into climate change adaptation plans and an adaptation perspective into development plans – is crucial for effective adaptation. The article provides a conceptual framework for considering the nexus approach in relation to climate change adaptation, discusses the potential synergies, trade-offs, and offers a broader framework for making adaptation responses more effective. Policy relevance This article draws attention to the importance of the interlinkages in the water, energy, and food nexus, and the implications for sustainable development and adaptation. The potential synergies and complementarities among the sectors should be used to guide formulation of effective adaptation options. The issues highlight the need for a shift in policy approaches from a sectoral focus, which can result in competing and counterproductive actions, to an integrated approach with policy coherence among the sectors that uses knowledge of the interlinkages to maximize gain, optimize trade-offs, and avoid negative impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nature and causes of food and livelihood security in mountain areas are quite different to those in the plains. Rapid socioeconomic and environmental changes added to the topographical constraints have exacerbated the problem of food insecurity in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) region. In Pakistan, food insecurity is significantly higher in the mountain areas than in the plains as a result of a range of biophysical and socioeconomic factors. The potential of mountain niche products such as fruit, nuts, and livestock has remained underutilized. Moreover, the opportunities offered by globalization, market integration, remittances, and non-farm income have not been fully tapped. This paper analyzes the opportunities and challenges of food security in Pakistan’s mountain areas, and outlines a framework for addressing the specific issues in terms of four different types of area differentiated by agro-ecological potential and access to markets, information, and institutional services. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna (GBM) river system flows through five countries – Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, and Nepal – characterized by large population, limited land resources, and frequent floods and natural hazards. Although the GBM region is well endowed with water sources, this is one of the poorest regions in the world. Its economy and human and environmental health depend on water, and water is thus at the heart of sustainable development, economic growth, and poverty reduction. This paper examines the opportunities for, and potential socio-economic benefits of, water resource management in the GBM region in the face of changing climate. It argues that water can be an entry point for addressing challenges common to the region, particularly through multi-purpose river projects that store monsoon water, mitigate the effects of floods and droughts, augment dry season river flows, expand irrigation and navigation facilities, generate hydropower, and enhance energy and environmental security. The paper emphasizes the importance of effective regional cooperation in water management to achieve these benefits. Upstream–downstream interdependencies necessitate development of a shared river system in an integrated and collaborative manner. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The Hindu Kush Himalayas are called the water towers of Asia as they are the source of 10 major rivers and have the largest snow and ice deposits outside the two poles. Water emanating from the HKH provides food, energy and ecosystem services to up to 1.3 billion people. Climate change and socio-economic and demographic changes have put unprecedented pressure on these water resources, leading to uncertain supplies, increased demands and higher risks of extreme events like floods and droughts. The eight articles in this special issue highlight various dimensions of the Himalayan water resources by focusing on both physical and social science aspects of water management. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Like other mountainous areas, Nepal is highly vulnerable to glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), and this vulnerability has increased due to climate change. Risk reduction strategies must be based on a comprehensive risk assessment. A comprehensive methodological approach for GLOF risk assessment is described and illustrated in case studies of the potential GLOF risk posed in Nepal by four glacial lakes, one located in China. People, property and public infrastructure (including hydropower plants, roads and bridges) are vulnerable, and there is a need to integrate GLOF risk reduction strategies into national policies and programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The Hindu Kush–Himalayan region is the source of 10 major rivers serving over 1.3 billion people. In spite of this abundance, mountain people have limited access to water for food, households and energy. Climate change is increasing the uncertainty about water availability and the frequency of extreme weather events. To buffer seasonal variations and address growing water demand, properly planned, developed and managed infrastructure and related institutional capacities are required. They should also recognize mountain-specific issues. Priority areas include transboundary water governance, cross-border information systems, an improved knowledge base for mountain regions, and benefit sharing between mountain and downstream communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the underlying causes of poor economic growth of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (UP), India, despite being endowed with relatively rich natural resources. Against the conventional view, the analysis reveals that poor economic growth is not due to a particular factor but an outcome of a myriad of social, economic and political factors rooted in structural, historical and macro-economic policies. The economic marginalization of Bihar and UP began in the colonial era through the establishment of an exploitative landlord class, which constantly resisted economic and social development even after independence in 1947. The process of marginalization has further been reinforced by the federal central government's policy of 'freight equalization', which nullified the comparative advantage of Bihar and UP in natural resources by subsidizing railway freights of industrial inputs like coal, iron ore, steel, cement and other bulk resources. This, combined with relatively low financial resources received from central government over the consecutive plan periods, has undermined these states' capacity to invest in health, education, and other social and physical infrastructure and resulted in low human development. The poor performance of Bihar and UP may be attributed to low human capital, weak institutions and poor infrastructure coupled with political instability and social conflict rooted in sectarian politics based on caste, class and ethnic division. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In pursuit of sustainable forest conservation, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal have promoted participatory forest management (PFM) approaches such as community forestry, joint forest management, and social forestry. This study assessed these approaches based on policy and legal frameworks, organizational arrangements, and decentralization of authority, which are considered the fundamental requirements for the success of PFM. The findings of the analysis revealed that although there is a tendency among all four countries moving toward PFM, their features and fundamentals vary considerably from one country to another. Overall, community forestry in Nepal appeared to be a robust participatory system, while the social forestry of Bangladesh—a highly centralized approach—is deemed very weak. The community forestry approach in Bhutan and joint forest management in India fall between these two extremes. Broad policy recommendations are outlined for promotion of genuine PFM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land degradation due to inappropriate agricultural activities, as well as the environmental and social effects associated with these practices, is accelerating in many developing regions of the world. This trend underlines the importance of measuring environmental costs and benefits to improve policy making with respect to land use and agriculture. Using nonmarket valuation techniques, this article estimates the value of environmental services associated with four agricultural land-use systems in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh and compares their relative profitability from private and social perspectives. The financial analysis reveals that annual cash crops are the most profitable short-term land use and agroforestry is the least profitable, with horticulture and farm forestry providing benefits intermediate between these two systems. However, the relatively larger returns from annual cash cropping lead to higher environmental costs such as soil erosion, forfeited carbon sequestration, and biodiversity loss. When the environmental costs are taken into account, annual cash crops appear to be the most costly land-use system, with agroforestry and farm forestry becoming more profitable. The findings demonstrate the tradeoffs and synergies between relatively more environmentally sustainable and harmful land-use practices. Financial incentives to encourage more prudent agricultural activities are needed to transform tradeoffs into synergies. This article examines different financial incentive mechanisms-including payments for environmental services—and makes several policy recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vast natural resources of India's forests, including non-timber forest products (NTFPs), such as medicinal and aromatic plants, leaves, fruits, seeds, resins, gums, bamboos, and canes, offer employment that provides up to half the income of about 25 per cent of the country's rural labour force. However, poor harvesting practices and over-exploitation in the face of increasing market demand are threatening the sustainability of these resources, and thus the livelihoods of forest-dependent tribal communities. This article analyses the role of NTFPs in livelihoods-improvement initiatives and considers recent initiatives intended to enhance their conservation and sustainable management. It recommends policies to optimise the potential of NTFPs, both to support rural livelihoods and to contribute to India's social, economic, and environmental well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]