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The role of seed producer cooperatives (SPCs) in the Ethiopian seed sector and their contribution to seed supply improvement have received attention from researchers, policymakers, and development partners. However, limited work has been done in reviewing and documenting their involvement in the seed sector development. In this paper, we review and discuss the SPCs in the Ethiopian seed sector. Specifically, we reflect on the contribution of SPCs to improving seed availability and access in the country. The current liberal market system of Ethiopia creates new opportunities for growth as successful enterprises, but also brings new challenges, such as more intense competition for smallholder producers. The government policy encourages SPCs to engage in seed business. We draw on scientific literature, reports, white papers, project documents, and websites. The review reveals that the seed sector in Ethiopia consists of three seed systems: formal, informal, and intermediary seed systems. Each seed system has a specific contribution to the delivery of seed to farmers, but they vary in their approach and respective strategies. The SPCs are categorized in the intermediary seed system because they have features of both formal and informal seed systems. They play a key role in meeting seed demand and contribute greatly to seed supply improvement through high-volume production of seed, crop, and variety diversification, and seed delivery to farmers. They produce and market the seed through various market channels, including direct sales to farmers, sales through contractual agreement, and sales directly to institutional buyers. Their contribution to improving the seed supply and seed security has received considerable recognition by policymakers and development practitioners. Therefore, government and development partners should support and strengthen SPCs to maximize their success in the seed business and their contribution to improving the seed supply in Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Seed system reliability is of major importance in farming. Whereas earlier studies analysed mainly annuals, this study focuses on a perennial. Oil palm in Benin was chosen as a case study because farmers complained about non-hybrids (duraandpisifera) in plots allegedly planted with 100% hybrid (tenera). This study assessed the reliability of the oil palm seedling supply system over past decades and its main drivers. An event ecology approach was used to identify causal mechanisms accounting for the observed variation in oil palm types on smallholder plots. A total of 378 plots belonging to 248 farmers that were allegedly planted withtenerabetween 1969 and 2009 were sampled, and shell thickness of fruits was assessed to determine whether palms weretenera,pisifera,ordura. The proportion ofteneravaried with seedling supply source, farmers' geographic position, seedling purchase price, and year of planting. The proportion ofteneradecreased with year of planting. Socio-institutional mechanisms associated with the observed variation in smallholder plots were national policy change, local arrangements for seedling supply to smallholder farmers, and farmers' personal characteristics. The implications of the observed decrease in the reliability of the seedling supply system are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of exclosure management on the plant recruitment are not clear yet. To assess the effects of exclosure management on the recruitment of elm, population structure, seed production, and densities of seeds and seedlings of elm were investigated in fenced and grazed pastures in Horqin Sandy Land, northeastern China. The results showed that seed biomass per branch of elm in the grazed plot was significantly higher than in fenced pasture (0.85 ± 0.27 g vs. 0.55 ± 0.36 g,p < 0.05), and seed density was higher in grazed pasture (845 ± 370 seedsm−2) than that in fenced pasture (558 ± 241 seedsm−2), indicating that grazing would improve reproductive allocation of elm. However, there was no significant difference of seedling density between grazed and fenced pastures. More important, the elm trees with a height less than 0.5 m appeared in the fenced pasture but disappeared in the grazed pasture, indicating the positive effects of exclosure management on the elm recruitment. Our results suggested that the exclosure would favor recruitment of elm through its protection of saplings instead of through increased seed production. This study improves our understanding of the effects of grazing on population dynamics of elm and would contribute to the restoration of degraded sandy land in northern China. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The formal seed sector only meets a small proportion of farmers' rice seed requirements in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. To cope with the growing demands, farmers have organized themselves in seed clubs to produce and supply the needed seeds themselves. This study assesses the status of rice seed production and proposes a model of how to ensure adequate seed supply in the Mekong Delta. Data of total seed production, distribution, prices, and used varieties of each crop season was collected from 19 seed stations and 309 seed clubs in all the 13 provinces of the Delta for the whole year of 2008. One hundred sixty none farmers were interviewed about seed demand and supply. Effective demand of seed in the Mekong Delta was about 0.55 million tons/year. The formal seed system met 3.5% and the informal seed system supplied more 16% of needed amounts. The informal system had significantly lower seed prices, but more diversity of rice varieties than the formal seed system. Both seed systems supplied seeds of rice varieties that had not yet been certified by the formal sector. Thus, new varieties were of high demand. Socialization of seed production was recommended to ensure the local seed supply systems for developing sustainable agriculture in the future. Results of this study indicate status of seed demands and supply to improve and link developing among seed systems in the Mekong Delta. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined farmers' information seeking and utilization pattern on seeds and planting materials in Lagos and Ogun States. A total of 220 farmers were selected through a multistage random sampling method and interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Farmers were exposed to many sources of information on seeds and planting materials, but their use in decreasing order of preference was as follows: family member (87.3%), extension agents (86.4%), agricultural development projects (76.4%), neighbors (75.9%), contact farmers (most innovative farmer in an extension circle) (71.8%), friends/peers (67.7%), radio jingles (56.4%), and sales agent (50%). Farmers were aware of and used information on hybrids of maize (96.4%), cassava (94.6%), yam (88.2%), okra (88.2%), melon (81.8%), pepper (86.8%), tomatoes (87.7%), and vegetables (80.9%). Significant determinants of information seeking were age (t = 2.46), educational level (t = 2.57), farming experience (t = 2.65), family size (t = 1.70), credibility of source of information (t = 2.93), language of instruction (t = 1.80), and organization membership (t = 1.86). Significant determinants of information utilization were age (t = -2.13), educational level (t = 3.14), family size (t = 2.12) and extension contact (t = -1.71). The results suggest the relevance of use of improved seeds and planting materials among farmers. They also suggest the relevance of the characteristics of information sources as drivers of use of improved seeds and planting materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge and information on farmers' perception and its influence on adoption of modern wheat varieties, awareness and source of new wheat production technology, wheat seed sources, and on-farm seed-management practices remain sporadic in Ethiopia. This study was conducted to understand the functioning of the wheat seed system in four major wheat-growing areas of Ethiopia. A total of 304 wheat growers were interviewed in Arsi, West Shoa, North Shoa, and East Gojam zones. Most wheat growers were aware of modern wheat varieties, agronomic packages, and agrochemical inputs; >90% of farmers had knowledge of these agricultural technologies, the extension system being the major source of information. There is an extensive adoption of new technologies: the majority of farmers grew modern wheat varieties (76% on recommended list and 10% 'obsolete' varieties), and applied fertilizers (97%) and herbicides (64%) to wheat. Although a wide range of modern wheat varieties were adopted, ET 13 (West Shoa, North Shoa, and East Gojam) and Pavon 76 (Arsi) were predominant and each was grown by 20% of the farmers, replacing previously popular varieties, such as Dashen and Enkoy. Farmers identified as many as 26 technological and socioeconomic criteria for adopting and continuously growing a particular wheat variety. However, grain yield, food quality, marketability, grain color, and grain size appeared to be the most important criteria and transcended all zones. Traditional farmer-to-farmer seed exchange played a significant role for lateral diffusion of modern varieties and was a major source of seed for planting wheat crop annually. The informal sector was an initial source of modern wheat varieties for 58% of the farmers, through neighbors or other farmers (36%), relatives (7%), or local trading (15%). Moreover, the majority of farmers sourced their wheat seed informally whereby 79% used retained seed or sourced off-farm from neighbors (9%) and local traders or markets (3%) for planting wheat during the survey year. In contrast, the formal sector was the initial source of wheat varieties for 40% of farmers, but only 8% of the farmers purchased certified seed in the 1997/98 crop season. Farmers' positive perception of seed influenced them to practice different management approaches to maintain the quality of their wheat seed through on-farm selection (67%), cleaning (83%), chemical treatment (4%), separate storage (65%), or informal assessment of seed quality (34%), whereas the responsibility was shared between men and women. The adoption and diffusion of modern bread-wheat varieties and associated technologies appeared to be higher than for other crops, although largely remained informal. It is imperative for the agricultural research to develop farmer-preferred varieties and for the government to strengthen and devise appropriate strategy for seed delivery that is responsive to the needs of the farmers. Within this context, it is important to recognize the role of the formal and informal seed system to create a sustainable seed industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food security is again at the top of the global agenda. A second green revolution adapting the strategies of the previous revolution to current circumstances and contexts has been proposed. This article introduces a framework for analyzing seed supply strategies by considering principles of agrobiodiversity conservation, formal and informal seed systems, market and service orientation, and the strengthening of local institutions. This framework is used to analyze strategies for supporting small-scale farmers' seed supply. We develop pathways for enhancing seed security while strengthening seed system robustness. By presenting a coherent and non-conflicting framework, we reconcile the seemingly contradictory forces of increasing food production and conserving agro-biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have assessed the impact of three seed-based intervention programs on crop diversity levels of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajun) in the semi-arid districts of Kitui and Makueni in eastern Kenya. We adopted four-cell analysis along with focus-group discussions to determine the cultivar diversity of pigeon pea. Often intercropped with maize (Zea nzays L.), pigeon pea is widely adapted to drought conditions and has multiple uses - as green vegetable and as food grain. It was evident that the existing local crop diversity also had an impact on local foods in the communities. The food preferences of the local population underlined the value attached to maize, pigeonpea, beans, and cowpea. All three seed interventions, producer-marketing groups (PMGs), community-based seed production programs (CBSP) and seed vouchers and fairs (SV&F) have had an impact on the overall crop diversity as well as on the pigeon pea crop diversity in the region. However, the cultivar diversity of pigeonpea was significantly higher in PMG sites than in CBSP and SV&F areas. Farmers located in PMG areas, had increased access to improved and quality planting materials of pigeonpea during normal and distress periods. The seed prices were more stable in the PMG sites than in the other intervention sites, due to proper marketing tie-ups for seeds and the grain. The results from our study further indicate that seed-based interventions, such as PMGs, are effective in providing improved seeds of dry-land crops like pigeon pea during normal and disaster periods. However, it was not clear if the improved varieties had displaced the existing local or land races of pigeon pea in the system, which requires a more rigorous study. This also calls for an effective and sustainable, seed-based initiative that provides quality seeds on time as well in improving the cultivar diversity during normal and distress periods in the semi-arid regions of eastern Kenya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes village-based seed enterprises (VBSEs) for less favorable and remote areas where the formal sector (public and private) fails to meet farmers' seed requirements. The review covers national seed sectors and outlines the concepts and organization of a participatory approach to establishing and managing local seed enterprises that would be both technically feasible and economically viable. It also discusses the policy, regulatory, institutional, technical, and organizational support that would be required from stakeholders to ensure successful implementation. The VBSEs can meet small-scale farmers' seed requirements in less favorable and remote areas. They differ from many other communityled seed production schemes previously initiated by developmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations because they emphasize marketing and profitability as strategies for long-term sustainability. We suggest that, in the absence of formal seed supply systems in less favorable and remote areas, governments should encourage the development of small seed enterprises to meet the diverse needs of farmers by providing flexible policy and regulatory frameworks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A shift from a cereal-based production system to a cereal- khat [Chata edulis (Vahl) Forsk. ex Endl.]-vegetable based system is occurring in the Hararghe region in eastern Ethiopia, a food-deficit region. Several reasons contribute to the food-insecurity that includes high population pressure, fragmentation of holdings, recurrent low-moisture stress, use of crop production technologies that are incompatible with the rainfall regime, weak research-extension-farmer linkage, and an unfavorable market structure. The shift by producers to changing farming circumstances was to improve agricultural performance and their livelihoods. The methodology employed was to produce vegetables, but this strategy is constrained by lack of adequate quality seed. This study was conducted to investigate the seed related constraints to vegetable production, and to suggest alternative approaches to overcome problems. Constraints in vegetable marketing as related to seed supply were assessed and mechanisms that could bring about improvements were also suggested. Inclusion of high value vegetable crops into the smallholder production system brought about an increased integration of the system into a market economy. It also enhanced the system's resilience, but producers are still seed insecure. The vegetable market structure better favors middlemen and traders more than producers. Attempts to provide relief food and emergency seed aid and developmental seed initiatives have been made by different government and non-government organizations. Emergency food and seed handouts, although at times indispensable, fostered a dependency mentality, undermined initiatives and innovation among the smallholder producers, and established a dependence on aid as part of the agricultural system. Developmental seed initiatives, with the potential to support farmers' welfare, were not successful or sustainable for various reasons. It is necessary that alternative methods for seed production and distribution be developed. The elements of failure of earlier community-based seed production programs were analyzed, and a different approach to organizing a sustainable community seed production scheme suggested. A Cooperative Community- Based Seed Enterprise (CCBSE) that blends the strengths of the local and formal seed supply systems, and that considers lessons learned from past attempts was suggested and its relevance demonstrated. It is argued that future seed projects should capitalize on developmental seed initiatives, and must be able to discourage the dependency mentality brought about by repeated emergency seed assistance. If not altered, such emergency seed assistance would also have a negative implication on the development of local CCBSE. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]