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Asthma is a common chronic allergic disease that affects a significant percentage of the world's population. Niosomes are nanoparticles consisting of non-ionic surfactants that can be used for drug delivery. This research was designed to investigate the impacts of inhalation of simple and niosomal forms of myrtenol against adverse consequences of asthma in rats. Asthma induction was performed via injection of ovalbumin, followed by its inhalation. Niosomes were created by a heating protocol, and their physicochemical features were evaluated. Forty-nine male Wistar rats were allotted into 7 groups (n=7 each): Control (CTL), vacant niosome (VN), Asthma, Asthma+VN, Asthma+SM (simple myrtenol), Asthma+NM (niosomal myrtenol), and Asthma+B (budesonide). Lung remodeling, serum immunoglobulin E (IgE), inflammatory  and cytokines, and antioxidant factors in the lung tissue and bronchoalveolar fluid (BALF), as well as), were evaluated. The results showed that myrtenol-loaded niosomes had appropriate encapsulation efficiency, kinetic release, size, and zeta potential. The thickness of the epithelial cell layer in the lungs, as well as cell infiltration, fibrosis, IgE, reactive oxygen species, interleukin (IL)-6, and tumor nuclear factor alpha (TNF-α) levels, decreased significantly. In contrast, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxide activity increased significantly in the serum and BALF of the treated groups. The niosomal form of myrtenol revealed a higher efficacy than simple myrtenol and was similar to budesonide in ameliorating asthma indices.  Inhalation of simple and niosomal forms of myrtenol improved the detrimental changes in the asthmatic lung. The niosomal form induced more prominent anti-asthmatic effects comparable to those of budesonide.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is defined with clinical symptoms of heart burning and regurgitation. It may be associated with external esophageal symptoms such as chronic cough, asthma, laryngitis, chronic lung disease, sinusitis and pulmonary fibrosis. In the present study, rats with chronic aspiration of gastroduodenal contents were studied for cellular phenotypes and cytokine concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage and lung tissue. Thirty-six male Albino N-MRI rats were randomly divided into six groups. After anesthesia and tracheal intubation, the animals received either 0.5ml/kg of normal saline (control), gastric juice, pepsin, hydrochloric acid or bile salts by injection into their lungs twice a week for 8 weeks. In sham group nothing was injected. Thereafter, cellular phenotypes and cytokine concentrations of Interleukine (IL)-1α, IL-1β, Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)-β, Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α, and IL-6 were assessed in bronchoalveolar lavage and lung tissue homogenates. The numbers of epithelial cells, macrophages, neutrophils and lymphocytes in BAL and levels of cytokines IL-1α, IL-6, TNF-α and TGF-β in BAL and lung tissue of test groups were significantly higher than the control group. Aspiration of bile salts caused more cytokine levels and inflammatory cells compared to other reflux components. It can be concluded that GERD with increased cytokines and inflammatory cells in lung could cause or exacerbate asthma and pulmonary fibrosis.