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Bacterial adhesion pili are key virulence factors that mediate host-pathogen interactions in diverse epithelial environments. Deploying a multimodal approach, we probed the structural basis underpinning the biophysical properties of pili originating from enterotoxigenic (ETEC) and uropathogenic bacteria. Using cryo-electron microscopy we solved the structures of three vaccine target pili from ETEC bacteria, CFA/I, CS17, and CS20. Pairing these and previous pilus structures with force spectroscopy and steered molecular dynamics simulations, we find a strong correlation between subunit-subunit interaction energies and the force required for pilus unwinding, irrespective of genetic similarity. Pili integrate three structural solutions for stabilizing their assemblies: layer-to-layer interactions, N-terminal interactions to distant subunits, and extended loop interactions from adjacent subunits. Tuning of these structural solutions alters the biophysical properties of pili and promotes the superelastic behavior that is essential for sustained bacterial attachment.

Bacterial adhesion pili are key virulence factors that mediate host-pathogen interactions in diverse epithelial environments. Deploying a multimodal approach, we probed the structural basis underpinning the biophysical properties of pili originating from enterotoxigenic (ETEC) and uropathogenic bacteria. Using cryo-electron microscopy we solved the structures of three vaccine target pili from ETEC bacteria, CFA/I, CS17, and CS20. Pairing these and previous pilus structures with force spectroscopy and steered molecular dynamics simulations, we find a strong correlation between subunit-subunit interaction energies and the force required for pilus unwinding, irrespective of genetic similarity. Pili integrate three structural solutions for stabilizing their assemblies: layer-to-layer interactions, N-terminal interactions to distant subunits, and extended loop interactions from adjacent subunits. Tuning of these structural solutions alters the biophysical properties of pili and promotes the superelastic behavior that is essential for sustained bacterial attachment.

Bacterial adhesion pili are key virulence factors that mediate host-pathogen interactions in diverse epithelial environments. Deploying a multimodal approach, we probed the structural basis underpinning the biophysical properties of pili originating from enterotoxigenic (ETEC) and uropathogenic bacteria. Using cryo-electron microscopy we solved the structures of three vaccine target pili from ETEC bacteria, CFA/I, CS17, and CS20. Pairing these and previous pilus structures with force spectroscopy and steered molecular dynamics simulations, we find a strong correlation between subunit-subunit interaction energies and the force required for pilus unwinding, irrespective of genetic similarity. Pili integrate three structural solutions for stabilizing their assemblies: layer-to-layer interactions, N-terminal interactions to distant subunits, and extended loop interactions from adjacent subunits. Tuning of these structural solutions alters the biophysical properties of pili and promotes the superelastic behavior that is essential for sustained bacterial attachment.

Bacterial adhesion pili are key virulence factors that mediate host-pathogen interactions in diverse epithelial environments. Deploying a multimodal approach, we probed the structural basis underpinning the biophysical properties of pili originating from enterotoxigenic (ETEC) and uropathogenic bacteria. Using cryo-electron microscopy we solved the structures of three vaccine target pili from ETEC bacteria, CFA/I, CS17, and CS20. Pairing these and previous pilus structures with force spectroscopy and steered molecular dynamics simulations, we find a strong correlation between subunit-subunit interaction energies and the force required for pilus unwinding, irrespective of genetic similarity. Pili integrate three structural solutions for stabilizing their assemblies: layer-to-layer interactions, N-terminal interactions to distant subunits, and extended loop interactions from adjacent subunits. Tuning of these structural solutions alters the biophysical properties of pili and promotes the superelastic behavior that is essential for sustained bacterial attachment.

Bacterial adhesion pili are key virulence factors that mediate host-pathogen interactions in diverse epithelial environments. Deploying a multimodal approach, we probed the structural basis underpinning the biophysical properties of pili originating from enterotoxigenic (ETEC) and uropathogenic bacteria. Using cryo-electron microscopy we solved the structures of three vaccine target pili from ETEC bacteria, CFA/I, CS17, and CS20. Pairing these and previous pilus structures with force spectroscopy and steered molecular dynamics simulations, we find a strong correlation between subunit-subunit interaction energies and the force required for pilus unwinding, irrespective of genetic similarity. Pili integrate three structural solutions for stabilizing their assemblies: layer-to-layer interactions, N-terminal interactions to distant subunits, and extended loop interactions from adjacent subunits. Tuning of these structural solutions alters the biophysical properties of pili and promotes the superelastic behavior that is essential for sustained bacterial attachment.

Adhesion pili assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway are superelastic helical filaments on the surface of bacteria, optimized for attachment to target cells. Here, we investigate the biophysical function and structural interactions that stabilize P pili from uropathogenic bacteria. Using optical tweezers, we measure P pilus subunit-subunit interaction dynamics and show that pilus compliance is contour-length dependent. Atomic details of subunit-subunit interactions of pili under tension are shown using steered molecular dynamics (sMD) simulations. sMD results also indicate that the N-terminal “staple” region of P pili, which provides interactions with pilins that are four and five subunits away, significantly stabilizes the helical filament structure. These data are consistent with previous structural data, and suggest that more layer-to-layer interactions could compensate for the lack of a staple in type 1 pili. This study informs our understanding of essential structural and dynamic features of adhesion pili, supporting the hypothesis that the function of pili is critically dependent on their structure and biophysical properties.

Adhesion pili assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway are superelastic helical filaments on the surface of bacteria, optimized for attachment to target cells. Here, we investigate the biophysical function and structural interactions that stabilize P pili from uropathogenic bacteria. Using optical tweezers, we measure P pilus subunit-subunit interaction dynamics and show that pilus compliance is contour-length dependent. Atomic details of subunit-subunit interactions of pili under tension are shown using steered molecular dynamics (sMD) simulations. sMD results also indicate that the N-terminal “staple” region of P pili, which provides interactions with pilins that are four and five subunits away, significantly stabilizes the helical filament structure. These data are consistent with previous structural data, and suggest that more layer-to-layer interactions could compensate for the lack of a staple in type 1 pili. This study informs our understanding of essential structural and dynamic features of adhesion pili, supporting the hypothesis that the function of pili is critically dependent on their structure and biophysical properties.

Adhesion pili assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway are superelastic helical filaments on the surface of bacteria, optimized for attachment to target cells. Here, we investigate the biophysical function and structural interactions that stabilize P pili from uropathogenic bacteria. Using optical tweezers, we measure P pilus subunit-subunit interaction dynamics and show that pilus compliance is contour-length dependent. Atomic details of subunit-subunit interactions of pili under tension are shown using steered molecular dynamics (sMD) simulations. sMD results also indicate that the N-terminal “staple” region of P pili, which provides interactions with pilins that are four and five subunits away, significantly stabilizes the helical filament structure. These data are consistent with previous structural data, and suggest that more layer-to-layer interactions could compensate for the lack of a staple in type 1 pili. This study informs our understanding of essential structural and dynamic features of adhesion pili, supporting the hypothesis that the function of pili is critically dependent on their structure and biophysical properties.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are pathogenic bacteria that cause diarrheal disease that disrupts the nutrition and the growth of children under the age of 5 and causes illness in travelers to countries where these bacteria are endemic. ETEC express long thin helical filaments on their surface, ∼1 micron long and 8 nm in diameter, called pili or fimbriae. Often essential virulence factors, these filaments, including ETEC CS20 pili, are composed of approximately 1,000 copies of the major pilin protein and one copy of a tip protein that provides binding specificity. While the structures of ETEC pili from different strains are similar, there are critical differences that alter their biophysical properties. ETEC express Class 1 and/or Class 5 pilins. The Class 1 CS20 pilin, CsbA, is genetically similar to FimA from Type 1 pili that are expressed on many strains of Escherichia coli, including bacteria that infect the urinary tract or the gastrointestinal tract, and also to PapA pilins expressed on bacteria that infect the kidneys. Thus, despite CS20 being expressed on ETEC, its pilin is genetically distant from the Class 5 CFA/I pilin, CfaB, the most commonly expressed ETEC pilin. We show here the three-dimensional structure and surface coulombic charge of CS20 pili, determined at 3.4 Å resolution by electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM). Our force spectroscopy data show that CS20 pili have a helix unwinding force that is twice that of CFA/I pili, and half that of Type 1 pili. Molecular dynamics simulations are further used to unveil features along the unwinding pathway at an atomistic scale. We see that CS20 pili bridge the genetic and environmental gap between Class 1 and Class 5 adhesion pili that are expressed on pathogenic bacteria.

Adhesion pili assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway are superelastic helical filaments on the surface of bacteria, optimized for attachment to target cells. Here, we investigate the biophysical function and structural interactions that stabilize P pili from uropathogenic bacteria. Using optical tweezers, we measure P pilus subunit-subunit interaction dynamics and show that pilus compliance is contour-length dependent. Atomic details of subunit-subunit interactions of pili under tension are shown using steered molecular dynamics (sMD) simulations. sMD results also indicate that the N-terminal “staple” region of P pili, which provides interactions with pilins that are four and five subunits away, significantly stabilizes the helical filament structure. These data are consistent with previous structural data, and suggest that more layer-to-layer interactions could compensate for the lack of a staple in type 1 pili. This study informs our understanding of essential structural and dynamic features of adhesion pili, supporting the hypothesis that the function of pili is critically dependent on their structure and biophysical properties.

Adhesion pili assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway are superelastic helical filaments on the surface of bacteria, optimized for attachment to target cells. Here, we investigate the biophysical function and structural interactions that stabilize P pili from uropathogenic bacteria. Using optical tweezers, we measure P pilus subunit-subunit interaction dynamics and show that pilus compliance is contour-length dependent. Atomic details of subunit-subunit interactions of pili under tension are shown using steered molecular dynamics (sMD) simulations. sMD results also indicate that the N-terminal “staple” region of P pili, which provides interactions with pilins that are four and five subunits away, significantly stabilizes the helical filament structure. These data are consistent with previous structural data, and suggest that more layer-to-layer interactions could compensate for the lack of a staple in type 1 pili. This study informs our understanding of essential structural and dynamic features of adhesion pili, supporting the hypothesis that the function of pili is critically dependent on their structure and biophysical properties.

Bacterial adhesion pili are essential virulence factors for many pathogenic Escherichia coli, including bacteria that cause urinary tract infections (UPEC) and diarrheal diseases (ETEC). To sustain adhesion under forces similar to those in the fluid environments of the urinary tract and gastrointestinal tract, these pili (also called fimbriae) can extend to over seven times their original length. Both UPEC and ETEC can uncoil their quaternary structure under pulling force and re-coil to their helical form when the force is reduced, as observed using optical tweezers. However, after extension to a linear polymer UPEC undergo an additional reversible conformational change, that is not seen in ETEC. The mechanism for this conformational change in UPEC is not known. Therefore, to obtain a comprehensive picture of pilus extension we have taken a synergistic approach that combines optical tweezer experiments, structural data from cryo-EM, and steered molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the response of pilin subunits to force. Our multi-faceted approach provides novel molecular-scale insights into the structural changes that occur in UPEC and ETEC pili under pulling forces. We find that the conformational change observed in UPEC pili in optical tweezer experiments is correlated with the presence of an alpha helix. In addition, structural analysis and steered molecular dynamics simulations show that there is a disulfide bond that provides additional stability of UPEC pilin subunits that is not observed in ETEC pilins, which lack cysteine residues. Together, these results suggest that the mechanism of extension of bacterial adhesion pili is related to their environmental niche, and the magnitude of fluid forces in the urinary tract versus the GI tract., Supplement 11006-Pos

Escherichia coli express adhesion pili that mediate attachment to host cell surfaces and are exposed to body fluids in the urinary and gastrointestinal tracts. Pilin subunits are organized into helical polymers, with a tip adhesin for specific host binding. Pili can elastically unwind when exposed to fluid flow forces, reducing the adhesin load, thereby facilitating sustained attachment. Here we investigate biophysical and structural differences of pili commonly expressed on bacteria that inhabit the urinary and intestinal tracts. Optical tweezers measurements reveal that Class 1a pili of uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC), as well as Class 1b of enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), undergo an additional conformational change beyond pilus unwinding, providing significantly more elasticity to their structure than ETEC Class 5 pili. Examining structural and steered molecular dynamics simulation data, we find this difference in Class 1 pili subunit behavior originates from an alpha-helical motif that can unfold when exposed to force. A disulfide bond cross-linking beta-strands in Class 1 pili stabilizes subunits, allowing them to tolerate higher forces than Class 5 pili that lack this covalent bond. We suggest that these extra contributions to pilus resiliency are relevant for the UPEC niche since resident bacteria are exposed to stronger, more transient drag forces compared to those experienced by ETEC bacteria in the mucosa of the intestinal tract. Interestingly, Class 1b ETEC pili include the same structural features seen in UPEC pili, while requiring lower unwinding forces that are more similar to those of Class 5 ETEC pili.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are common agents of diarrhea for travelers and a major cause of mortality in children in developing countries. To attach to intestinal cells ETEC express colonization factors, among them CFA/I, which are the most prevalent factors and are the archetypical representative of class 5 pili. The helical quaternary structure of CFA/I can be unwound under tensile force and it has been shown that this mechanical property helps bacteria to withstand shear forces from fluid motion. We report in this work the CFA/I pilus structure at 4.3 Å resolution from electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM) data, and report details of the donor strand complementation. The CfaB pilins modeled into the cryo-EM map allow us to identify the buried surface area between subunits, and these regions are correlated to quaternary structural stability in class 5 and chaperone–usher pili. In addition, from the model built using the EM structure we also predicted that residue 13 (proline) of the N-terminal β-strand could have a major impact on the filament's structural stability. Therefore, we used optical tweezers to measure and compare the stability of the quaternary structure of wild type CFA/I and a point-mutated CFA/I with a propensity for unwinding. We found that pili with this mutated CFA/I require a lower force to unwind, supporting our hypothesis that Pro13 is important for structural stability. The high-resolution CFA/I pilus structure presented in this work and the analysis of structural stability will be useful for the development of novel antimicrobial drugs that target adhesion pili needed for initial attachment and sustained adhesion of ETEC.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are common agents of diarrhea for travelers and a major cause of mortality in children in developing countries. To attach to intestinal cells ETEC express colonization factors, among them CFA/I, which are the most prevalent factors and are the archetypical representative of class 5 pili. The helical quaternary structure of CFA/I can be unwound under tensile force and it has been shown that this mechanical property helps bacteria to withstand shear forces from fluid motion. We report in this work the CFA/I pilus structure at 4.3 Å resolution from electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM) data, and report details of the donor strand complementation. The CfaB pilins modeled into the cryo-EM map allow us to identify the buried surface area between subunits, and these regions are correlated to quaternary structural stability in class 5 and chaperone–usher pili. In addition, from the model built using the EM structure we also predicted that residue 13 (proline) of the N-terminal β-strand could have a major impact on the filament's structural stability. Therefore, we used optical tweezers to measure and compare the stability of the quaternary structure of wild type CFA/I and a point-mutated CFA/I with a propensity for unwinding. We found that pili with this mutated CFA/I require a lower force to unwind, supporting our hypothesis that Pro13 is important for structural stability. The high-resolution CFA/I pilus structure presented in this work and the analysis of structural stability will be useful for the development of novel antimicrobial drugs that target adhesion pili needed for initial attachment and sustained adhesion of ETEC.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are common agents of diarrhea for travelers and a major cause of mortality in children in developing countries. To attach to intestinal cells ETEC express colonization factors, among them CFA/I, which are the most prevalent factors and are the archetypical representative of class 5 pili. The helical quaternary structure of CFA/I can be unwound under tensile force and it has been shown that this mechanical property helps bacteria to withstand shear forces from fluid motion. We report in this work the CFA/I pilus structure at 4.3 Å resolution from electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM) data, and report details of the donor strand complementation. The CfaB pilins modeled into the cryo-EM map allow us to identify the buried surface area between subunits, and these regions are correlated to quaternary structural stability in class 5 and chaperone–usher pili. In addition, from the model built using the EM structure we also predicted that residue 13 (proline) of the N-terminal β-strand could have a major impact on the filament's structural stability. Therefore, we used optical tweezers to measure and compare the stability of the quaternary structure of wild type CFA/I and a point-mutated CFA/I with a propensity for unwinding. We found that pili with this mutated CFA/I require a lower force to unwind, supporting our hypothesis that Pro13 is important for structural stability. The high-resolution CFA/I pilus structure presented in this work and the analysis of structural stability will be useful for the development of novel antimicrobial drugs that target adhesion pili needed for initial attachment and sustained adhesion of ETEC.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are common agents of diarrhea for travelers and a major cause of mortality in children in developing countries. To attach to intestinal cells ETEC express colonization factors, among them CFA/I, which are the most prevalent factors and are the archetypical representative of class 5 pili. The helical quaternary structure of CFA/I can be unwound under tensile force and it has been shown that this mechanical property helps bacteria to withstand shear forces from fluid motion. We report in this work the CFA/I pilus structure at 4.3 Å resolution from electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM) data, and report details of the donor strand complementation. The CfaB pilins modeled into the cryo-EM map allow us to identify the buried surface area between subunits, and these regions are correlated to quaternary structural stability in class 5 and chaperone–usher pili. In addition, from the model built using the EM structure we also predicted that residue 13 (proline) of the N-terminal β-strand could have a major impact on the filament's structural stability. Therefore, we used optical tweezers to measure and compare the stability of the quaternary structure of wild type CFA/I and a point-mutated CFA/I with a propensity for unwinding. We found that pili with this mutated CFA/I require a lower force to unwind, supporting our hypothesis that Pro13 is important for structural stability. The high-resolution CFA/I pilus structure presented in this work and the analysis of structural stability will be useful for the development of novel antimicrobial drugs that target adhesion pili needed for initial attachment and sustained adhesion of ETEC.

We report an interpolation model to calculate the hydrodynamic force on tethered capsule-shaped cells in micro-fluidic flows near a surface. Our model is based on numerical solutions of the full Navier–Stokes equations for capsule-shaped objects considering their geometry, aspect ratio and orientation with respect to fluid flow. The model reproduced the results from computational fluid dynamic simulations, with an average error of <0.15 % for objects with an aspect ratio up to 5, and the model exactly reproduced the Goldman approximation of spherical objects close to a surface. We estimated the hydrodynamic force imposed on tethered Escherichia coli cells using the interpolation model and approximate models found in the literature, for example, one that assumes that E. coli is ellipsoid shaped. We fitted the 2D-projected area of a capsule and ellipsoid to segmented E. coli cells. We found that even though an ellipsoidal shape is a reasonable approximation of the cell shape, the capsule gives 4.4 % better agreement, a small difference that corresponds to 15 % difference in hydrodynamic force. In addition, we showed that the new interpolation model provides a significantly better agreement compared to estimates from commonly used models and that it can be used as a fast and accurate substitute for complex and computationally heavy fluid dynamic simulations. This is useful when performing bacterial adhesion experiments in parallel-plate flow channels. We include a MATLAB script that can track cells in a video time-series and estimate the hydrodynamic force using our interpolation formula.

Escherichia coli bacterial cells produce multiple types of adhesion pili that mediate cell-cell and cell-host attachments. These pili (also called 'fimbriae') are large biopolymers that are comprised of subunits assembled via a sophisticated micro-machinery into helix-like structures that are anchored in the bacterial outer membrane. They are commonly essential for initiation of disease and thus provide a potential target for antibacterial prevention and treatment. To develop new therapeutics for disease prevention and treatment we need to understand the molecular mechanisms and the direct role of adhesion pili during pathogenesis. These helix-like pilus structures possess fascinating and unique biomechanical properties that have been thoroughly investigated using high-resolution imaging techniques, force spectroscopy and fluid flow chambers. In this chapter, we first discuss the structure of pili and the micro-machinery responsible for the assembly process. Thereafter, we present methods for measurement of the biomechanics of adhesion pili, including optical tweezers. Data demonstrate unique biomechanical properties of pili that allow bacteria to sustain binding during in vivo fluid shear forces. We thereafter summarize the current biomechanical findings related to adhesion pili and show that pili biomechanical properties are niche-specific. That is, the data suggest that there is an organ-specific adaptation of pili that facilitates infection of the bacteria's target tissue. Thus, pilus biophysical properties are an important part of Escherichia coli pathogenesis, allowing bacteria to overcome hydrodynamic challenges in diverse environments.

As adhesion fimbriae are a major virulence factor for many pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, they are also potential targets for antibodies. Fimbriae are commonly required for initiating the colonization that leads to disease, and their success as adhesion organelles lies in their ability to both initiate and sustain bacte- rial attachment to epithelial cells. The ability of fimbriae to unwind and rewind their helical filaments presumably reduces their detachment from tissue surfaces with the shear forces that accompany significant fluid flow. Therefore, the disruption of func- tional fimbriae by inhibiting this resilience should have high potential for use as a vaccine to prevent disease. In this study, we show that two characteristic biome- chanical features of fimbrial resilience, namely, the extension force and the exten- sion length, are significantly altered by the binding of antibodies to fimbriae. The fimbriae that were studied are normally expressed on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, which are a major cause of diarrheal disease. This alteration in biomechanical properties was observed with bivalent polyclonal antifimbrial antibodies that recog- nize major pilin subunits but not with the Fab fragments of these antibodies. Thus, we propose that the mechanism by which bound antibodies disrupt the uncoiling of natural fimbria under force is by clamping together layers of the helical filament, thereby increasing their stiffness and reducing their resilience during fluid flow. In addition, we propose that antibodies tangle fimbriae via bivalent binding, i.e., by binding to two individual fimbriae and linking them together. Use of antibodies to disrupt physical properties of fimbriae may be generally applicable to the large number of Gram-negative bacteria that rely on these surface-adhesion molecules as an essential virulence factor. I M P O R T A N C E Our study shows that the resiliency of colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) and coli surface antigen 2 (CS2, Originally published in manuscript form with title "Antibodies damage fimbrial resilience, making them stiff and tangled"

As adhesion fimbriae are a major virulence factor for many pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, they are also potential targets for antibodies. Fimbriae are commonly required for initiating the colonization that leads to disease, and their success as adhesion organelles lies in their ability to both initiate and sustain bacte- rial attachment to epithelial cells. The ability of fimbriae to unwind and rewind their helical filaments presumably reduces their detachment from tissue surfaces with the shear forces that accompany significant fluid flow. Therefore, the disruption of func- tional fimbriae by inhibiting this resilience should have high potential for use as a vaccine to prevent disease. In this study, we show that two characteristic biome- chanical features of fimbrial resilience, namely, the extension force and the exten- sion length, are significantly altered by the binding of antibodies to fimbriae. The fimbriae that were studied are normally expressed on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, which are a major cause of diarrheal disease. This alteration in biomechanical properties was observed with bivalent polyclonal antifimbrial antibodies that recog- nize major pilin subunits but not with the Fab fragments of these antibodies. Thus, we propose that the mechanism by which bound antibodies disrupt the uncoiling of natural fimbria under force is by clamping together layers of the helical filament, thereby increasing their stiffness and reducing their resilience during fluid flow. In addition, we propose that antibodies tangle fimbriae via bivalent binding, i.e., by binding to two individual fimbriae and linking them together. Use of antibodies to disrupt physical properties of fimbriae may be generally applicable to the large number of Gram-negative bacteria that rely on these surface-adhesion molecules as an essential virulence factor. I M P O R T A N C E Our study shows that the resiliency of colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) and coli surface antigen 2 (CS2, Originally published in manuscript form with title "Antibodies damage fimbrial resilience, making them stiff and tangled"

As adhesion fimbriae are a major virulence factor for many pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, they are also potential targets for antibodies. Fimbriae are commonly required for initiating the colonization that leads to disease, and their success as adhesion organelles lies in their ability to both initiate and sustain bacte- rial attachment to epithelial cells. The ability of fimbriae to unwind and rewind their helical filaments presumably reduces their detachment from tissue surfaces with the shear forces that accompany significant fluid flow. Therefore, the disruption of func- tional fimbriae by inhibiting this resilience should have high potential for use as a vaccine to prevent disease. In this study, we show that two characteristic biome- chanical features of fimbrial resilience, namely, the extension force and the exten- sion length, are significantly altered by the binding of antibodies to fimbriae. The fimbriae that were studied are normally expressed on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, which are a major cause of diarrheal disease. This alteration in biomechanical properties was observed with bivalent polyclonal antifimbrial antibodies that recog- nize major pilin subunits but not with the Fab fragments of these antibodies. Thus, we propose that the mechanism by which bound antibodies disrupt the uncoiling of natural fimbria under force is by clamping together layers of the helical filament, thereby increasing their stiffness and reducing their resilience during fluid flow. In addition, we propose that antibodies tangle fimbriae via bivalent binding, i.e., by binding to two individual fimbriae and linking them together. Use of antibodies to disrupt physical properties of fimbriae may be generally applicable to the large number of Gram-negative bacteria that rely on these surface-adhesion molecules as an essential virulence factor. I M P O R T A N C E Our study shows that the resiliency of colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) and coli surface antigen 2 (CS2, Originally published in manuscript form with title "Antibodies damage fimbrial resilience, making them stiff and tangled"

As adhesion fimbriae are a major virulence factor for many pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, they are also potential targets for antibodies. Fimbriae are commonly required for initiating the colonization that leads to disease, and their success as adhesion organelles lies in their ability to both initiate and sustain bacte- rial attachment to epithelial cells. The ability of fimbriae to unwind and rewind their helical filaments presumably reduces their detachment from tissue surfaces with the shear forces that accompany significant fluid flow. Therefore, the disruption of func- tional fimbriae by inhibiting this resilience should have high potential for use as a vaccine to prevent disease. In this study, we show that two characteristic biome- chanical features of fimbrial resilience, namely, the extension force and the exten- sion length, are significantly altered by the binding of antibodies to fimbriae. The fimbriae that were studied are normally expressed on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, which are a major cause of diarrheal disease. This alteration in biomechanical properties was observed with bivalent polyclonal antifimbrial antibodies that recog- nize major pilin subunits but not with the Fab fragments of these antibodies. Thus, we propose that the mechanism by which bound antibodies disrupt the uncoiling of natural fimbria under force is by clamping together layers of the helical filament, thereby increasing their stiffness and reducing their resilience during fluid flow. In addition, we propose that antibodies tangle fimbriae via bivalent binding, i.e., by binding to two individual fimbriae and linking them together. Use of antibodies to disrupt physical properties of fimbriae may be generally applicable to the large number of Gram-negative bacteria that rely on these surface-adhesion molecules as an essential virulence factor. I M P O R T A N C E Our study shows that the resiliency of colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) and coli surface antigen 2 (CS2, Originally published in manuscript form with title "Antibodies damage fimbrial resilience, making them stiff and tangled"

As adhesion fimbriae are a major virulence factor for many pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, they are also potential targets for antibodies. Fimbriae are commonly required for initiating the colonization that leads to disease, and their success as adhesion organelles lies in their ability to both initiate and sustain bacte- rial attachment to epithelial cells. The ability of fimbriae to unwind and rewind their helical filaments presumably reduces their detachment from tissue surfaces with the shear forces that accompany significant fluid flow. Therefore, the disruption of func- tional fimbriae by inhibiting this resilience should have high potential for use as a vaccine to prevent disease. In this study, we show that two characteristic biome- chanical features of fimbrial resilience, namely, the extension force and the exten- sion length, are significantly altered by the binding of antibodies to fimbriae. The fimbriae that were studied are normally expressed on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, which are a major cause of diarrheal disease. This alteration in biomechanical properties was observed with bivalent polyclonal antifimbrial antibodies that recog- nize major pilin subunits but not with the Fab fragments of these antibodies. Thus, we propose that the mechanism by which bound antibodies disrupt the uncoiling of natural fimbria under force is by clamping together layers of the helical filament, thereby increasing their stiffness and reducing their resilience during fluid flow. In addition, we propose that antibodies tangle fimbriae via bivalent binding, i.e., by binding to two individual fimbriae and linking them together. Use of antibodies to disrupt physical properties of fimbriae may be generally applicable to the large number of Gram-negative bacteria that rely on these surface-adhesion molecules as an essential virulence factor. I M P O R T A N C E Our study shows that the resiliency of colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) and coli surface antigen 2 (CS2, Originally published in manuscript form with title "Antibodies damage fimbrial resilience, making them stiff and tangled"

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) express a variety of fimbriae that mediate adhesion to host epithelial cells. It has been shown that the ability of a fimbriated bacterial cell to attach and stay attached to host cells does not merely depend on the adhesin expressed distal of the fimbriae but also the biomechanical properties of the fimbriae are vital for sustained adhesion. Fimbriae can significantly extend under a constant force when exposed to an external force and therefore reduce the load on the adhesin, which is believed to help bacteria to withstand external forces applied by various body defense systems. Thus, it is thought that the fimbrial shaft and adhesin have co-evolved for optimal function when bacteria attach to host cells. To investigate if antibodies, normally found in the intestines, affects the biomechanical properties of fimbriae, we exposed CS20 fimbriae expressed by ETEC to anti-fimbrial antibodies and measured these properties using optical tweezers force spectroscopy. Our data show a change in the force required to extend the fimbriae and that the elasticity is significantly reduced by the presence of antibodies. The reduced elasticity, likely due to cross-linking of fimbrial subunits, could thus be another assignment for antibodies; in addition to their mission in marking bacteria as foreign, our data indicate that antibodies physically compromise fimbrial function. To further confirm interaction of antibodies to their specific target we performed western blot analysis, transmission electron microscopy and immunofluoresence microscopy. In the presence of antibodies, we suggest that our assay and results will be a starting point for further studies aimed at inhibiting bacterial adhesion by antibodies., Supplement: 1Meeting Abstract: 3035-Pos

Supplement 3

Pathogenic enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are the major bacterial cause of diarrhea in young children in developing countries and in travelers, causing significant mortality in children. Adhesive fimbriae are a prime virulence factor for ETEC, initiating colonization of the small intestinal epithelium. Similar to other Gram-negative bacteria, ETEC express one or more diverse fimbriae, some assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway and others by the alternate chaperone pathway. Here, we elucidate structural and biophysical aspects and adaptations of each fimbrial type to its respective host niche. CS20 fimbriae are compared with colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) fimbriae, which are two ETEC fimbriae assembled via different pathways, and with P-fimbriae from uropathogenic E.coli. Many fimbriae unwind from their native helical filament to an extended linear conformation under force, thereby sustaining adhesion by reducing load at the point of contact between the bacterium and the target cell. CFA/I fimbriae require the least force to unwind, followed by CS20 fimbriae and then P-fimbriae, which require the highest unwinding force. We conclude from our electron microscopy reconstructions, modeling and force spectroscopy data that the target niche plays a central role in the biophysical properties of fimbriae that are critical for bacterial pathophysiology.

Preventive vaccines against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are being developed, many of which target common fimbrial colonization factors as the major constituent, based on empirical evidence that these function as protective antigens. Particularly, passive oral administration of ETEC anti-fimbrial antibodies prevent ETEC diarrhea. Little is, however, known regarding the specific mechanisms by which intestinal antibodies against ETEC fimbriae function to prevent disease. Using coli surface antigen 20 (CS20) fimbriae as a model ETEC colonization factor, we show using force spectroscopy that anti-fimbrial antibodies diminish fimbrial elasticity by inhibiting their natural capacity to unwind and rewind. In the presence of anti-CS20 antibodies the force required to unwind a single fimbria was increased several-fold and the extension length was shortened several-fold. Similar measurements in the presence of anti-CS20 Fab fragments did not show any effect, indicating that bivalent antibody binding is required to reduce fimbrial elasticity. Based on these findings, we propose a model for an in-vivo mechanism whereby antibody-mediated disruption of the biomechanical properties of CS20 fimbriae impedes sustained adhesion of ETEC to the intestinal mucosal surface. Further elucidation of the role played by intestinal antibodies in mechanical disruption of fimbrial function may provide insights relevant to ETEC vaccine development.

Pathogenic enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are the major bacterial cause of diarrhea in young children in developing countries and in travelers, causing significant mortality in children. Adhesive fimbriae are a prime virulence factor for ETEC, initiating colonization of the small intestinal epithelium. Similar to other Gram-negative bacteria, ETEC express one or more diverse fimbriae, some assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway and others by the alternate chaperone pathway. Here, we elucidate structural and biophysical aspects and adaptations of each fimbrial type to its respective host niche. CS20 fimbriae are compared with colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) fimbriae, which are two ETEC fimbriae assembled via different pathways, and with P-fimbriae from uropathogenic E.coli. Many fimbriae unwind from their native helical filament to an extended linear conformation under force, thereby sustaining adhesion by reducing load at the point of contact between the bacterium and the target cell. CFA/I fimbriae require the least force to unwind, followed by CS20 fimbriae and then P-fimbriae, which require the highest unwinding force. We conclude from our electron microscopy reconstructions, modeling and force spectroscopy data that the target niche plays a central role in the biophysical properties of fimbriae that are critical for bacterial pathophysiology.

Preventive vaccines against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are being developed, many of which target common fimbrial colonization factors as the major constituent, based on empirical evidence that these function as protective antigens. Particularly, passive oral administration of ETEC anti-fimbrial antibodies prevent ETEC diarrhea. Little is, however, known regarding the specific mechanisms by which intestinal antibodies against ETEC fimbriae function to prevent disease. Using coli surface antigen 20 (CS20) fimbriae as a model ETEC colonization factor, we show using force spectroscopy that anti-fimbrial antibodies diminish fimbrial elasticity by inhibiting their natural capacity to unwind and rewind. In the presence of anti-CS20 antibodies the force required to unwind a single fimbria was increased several-fold and the extension length was shortened several-fold. Similar measurements in the presence of anti-CS20 Fab fragments did not show any effect, indicating that bivalent antibody binding is required to reduce fimbrial elasticity. Based on these findings, we propose a model for an in-vivo mechanism whereby antibody-mediated disruption of the biomechanical properties of CS20 fimbriae impedes sustained adhesion of ETEC to the intestinal mucosal surface. Further elucidation of the role played by intestinal antibodies in mechanical disruption of fimbrial function may provide insights relevant to ETEC vaccine development.

Pathogenic enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are the major bacterial cause of diarrhea in young children in developing countries and in travelers, causing significant mortality in children. Adhesive fimbriae are a prime virulence factor for ETEC, initiating colonization of the small intestinal epithelium. Similar to other Gram-negative bacteria, ETEC express one or more diverse fimbriae, some assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway and others by the alternate chaperone pathway. Here, we elucidate structural and biophysical aspects and adaptations of each fimbrial type to its respective host niche. CS20 fimbriae are compared with colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) fimbriae, which are two ETEC fimbriae assembled via different pathways, and with P-fimbriae from uropathogenic E.coli. Many fimbriae unwind from their native helical filament to an extended linear conformation under force, thereby sustaining adhesion by reducing load at the point of contact between the bacterium and the target cell. CFA/I fimbriae require the least force to unwind, followed by CS20 fimbriae and then P-fimbriae, which require the highest unwinding force. We conclude from our electron microscopy reconstructions, modeling and force spectroscopy data that the target niche plays a central role in the biophysical properties of fimbriae that are critical for bacterial pathophysiology.

Adhesion fimbriae (pili) of uropathogenic and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (UPEC and ETEC, respectively) facilitate adherence of the bacteria to target cells. Fimbriae are absolutely necessary for colonization and biofilm formation in the initiation of disease. The types of fimbriae expressed on the bacterial surface vary with the preferred environmental niche of the bacterial strain. For example, UPEC that express P-pili are most frequently associated pyelonephritis, an infection in the upper urinary tract, whereas bacteria that express type 1 fimbriae commonly cause cystitis through infection of the lower urinary tract. In contrast, ETEC expressing CFA/I and CS2 pili are associated with diarrheal diseases, initiating disease in the small intestines. Although expressed in different enviroments, these fimbriae share basic structural and biomechanical features. Structurally, they are all long (1-4 μm), thin (7-8 nm diameter) helix-like filaments that extend from the bacterial surface. Biomechanically, they share the ability to be extended into a thinner filament (2-3 nm diameter) by unwinding of the helical filament under a constant force. However, the force required to unwind is specific to each fimbrial type. In addition, the dependence of the force required to unwind a fimbria on the velocity of this unwinding, (that is, the kinetics of unwinding), is also type-specific and highly variable. These biomechanical parameters are dissimilar for UPEC and ETEC expressed fimbriae, separating them into two distinct groups. Using force spectroscopy data, helical reconstructions from electron microscopy data, and computational simulations, we show in this work how these pronounced biomechanical differences may be beneficial for bacterial survival in a given environment.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are a major cause of diarrhea worldwide, and infection of children in underdeveloped countries often leads to high mortality rates. Isolated ETEC express a plethora of colonization factors (fimbriae/pili), of which CFA/I and CFA/II that are assembled via the alternate chaperone pathway (ACP), are amongst the most common. Fimbriae are filamentous structures, whose shafts are primarily composed of helically arranged single pilin-protein subunits, with a unique biomechanical capability allowing them to unwind and rewind. A sustained ETEC infection, under adverse conditions of dynamic shear forces, is primarily attributed to this biomechanical feature of ETEC fimbriae. Recent understandings about the role of fimbriae as virulence factors are pointing to an evolutionary adaptation of their structural and biomechanical features. In this work, we investigated the biophysical properties of CS2 fimbriae from the CFA/II group. Homology modelling its major structural subunit CotA reveals structural clues and these are related to the niche in which they are expressed. Using optical tweezers force spectroscopy we found that CS2 fimbriae unwind at a constant force of 10 pN and have a corner velocity of 1300 nm/s, i.e., the velocity at which the force required for unwinding rises exponentially with increased speed. The biophysical properties of CS2 fimbriae assessed in this work classify them into a low-force unwinding group of fimbriae together with the CFA/I and CS20 fimbriae expressed by ETEC strains. The three fimbriae are expressed by ETEC, colonize in similar gut environments, and exhibit similar biophysical features, but differ in their biogenesis. Our observation suggests that the environment has a strong impact on the biophysical characteristics of fimbriae expressed by ETEC., This work was supported by NIH (GM05722 and RR025434 to E.B.), the Swedish Research Council (621-2013-5379 to M.A. and the Carl Trygger foundation to M.A.

Preventive vaccines against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are being developed, many of which target common fimbrial colonization factors as the major constituent, based on empirical evidence that these function as protective antigens. Particularly, passive oral administration of ETEC anti-fimbrial antibodies prevent ETEC diarrhea. Little is, however, known regarding the specific mechanisms by which intestinal antibodies against ETEC fimbriae function to prevent disease. Using coli surface antigen 20 (CS20) fimbriae as a model ETEC colonization factor, we show using force spectroscopy that anti-fimbrial antibodies diminish fimbrial elasticity by inhibiting their natural capacity to unwind and rewind. In the presence of anti-CS20 antibodies the force required to unwind a single fimbria was increased several-fold and the extension length was shortened several-fold. Similar measurements in the presence of anti-CS20 Fab fragments did not show any effect, indicating that bivalent antibody binding is required to reduce fimbrial elasticity. Based on these findings, we propose a model for an in-vivo mechanism whereby antibody-mediated disruption of the biomechanical properties of CS20 fimbriae impedes sustained adhesion of ETEC to the intestinal mucosal surface. Further elucidation of the role played by intestinal antibodies in mechanical disruption of fimbrial function may provide insights relevant to ETEC vaccine development.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) express a variety of fimbriae that mediate adhesion to host epithelial cells. It has been shown that the ability of a fimbriated bacterial cell to attach and stay attached to host cells does not merely depend on the adhesin expressed distal of the fimbriae but also the biomechanical properties of the fimbriae are vital for sustained adhesion. Fimbriae can significantly extend under a constant force when exposed to an external force and therefore reduce the load on the adhesin, which is believed to help bacteria to withstand external forces applied by various body defense systems. Thus, it is thought that the fimbrial shaft and adhesin have co-evolved for optimal function when bacteria attach to host cells. To investigate if antibodies, normally found in the intestines, affects the biomechanical properties of fimbriae, we exposed CS20 fimbriae expressed by ETEC to anti-fimbrial antibodies and measured these properties using optical tweezers force spectroscopy. Our data show a change in the force required to extend the fimbriae and that the elasticity is significantly reduced by the presence of antibodies. The reduced elasticity, likely due to cross-linking of fimbrial subunits, could thus be another assignment for antibodies; in addition to their mission in marking bacteria as foreign, our data indicate that antibodies physically compromise fimbrial function. To further confirm interaction of antibodies to their specific target we performed western blot analysis, transmission electron microscopy and immunofluoresence microscopy. In the presence of antibodies, we suggest that our assay and results will be a starting point for further studies aimed at inhibiting bacterial adhesion by antibodies., Supplement: 1Meeting Abstract: 3035-Pos

Supplement 3

Pathogenic enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are the major bacterial cause of diarrhea in young children in developing countries and in travelers, causing significant mortality in children. Adhesive fimbriae are a prime virulence factor for ETEC, initiating colonization of the small intestinal epithelium. Similar to other Gram-negative bacteria, ETEC express one or more diverse fimbriae, some assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway and others by the alternate chaperone pathway. Here, we elucidate structural and biophysical aspects and adaptations of each fimbrial type to its respective host niche. CS20 fimbriae are compared with colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) fimbriae, which are two ETEC fimbriae assembled via different pathways, and with P-fimbriae from uropathogenic E.coli. Many fimbriae unwind from their native helical filament to an extended linear conformation under force, thereby sustaining adhesion by reducing load at the point of contact between the bacterium and the target cell. CFA/I fimbriae require the least force to unwind, followed by CS20 fimbriae and then P-fimbriae, which require the highest unwinding force. We conclude from our electron microscopy reconstructions, modeling and force spectroscopy data that the target niche plays a central role in the biophysical properties of fimbriae that are critical for bacterial pathophysiology.

Preventive vaccines against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are being developed, many of which target common fimbrial colonization factors as the major constituent, based on empirical evidence that these function as protective antigens. Particularly, passive oral administration of ETEC anti-fimbrial antibodies prevent ETEC diarrhea. Little is, however, known regarding the specific mechanisms by which intestinal antibodies against ETEC fimbriae function to prevent disease. Using coli surface antigen 20 (CS20) fimbriae as a model ETEC colonization factor, we show using force spectroscopy that anti-fimbrial antibodies diminish fimbrial elasticity by inhibiting their natural capacity to unwind and rewind. In the presence of anti-CS20 antibodies the force required to unwind a single fimbria was increased several-fold and the extension length was shortened several-fold. Similar measurements in the presence of anti-CS20 Fab fragments did not show any effect, indicating that bivalent antibody binding is required to reduce fimbrial elasticity. Based on these findings, we propose a model for an in-vivo mechanism whereby antibody-mediated disruption of the biomechanical properties of CS20 fimbriae impedes sustained adhesion of ETEC to the intestinal mucosal surface. Further elucidation of the role played by intestinal antibodies in mechanical disruption of fimbrial function may provide insights relevant to ETEC vaccine development.

Pathogenic enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are the major bacterial cause of diarrhea in young children in developing countries and in travelers, causing significant mortality in children. Adhesive fimbriae are a prime virulence factor for ETEC, initiating colonization of the small intestinal epithelium. Similar to other Gram-negative bacteria, ETEC express one or more diverse fimbriae, some assembled by the chaperone-usher pathway and others by the alternate chaperone pathway. Here, we elucidate structural and biophysical aspects and adaptations of each fimbrial type to its respective host niche. CS20 fimbriae are compared with colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) fimbriae, which are two ETEC fimbriae assembled via different pathways, and with P-fimbriae from uropathogenic E.coli. Many fimbriae unwind from their native helical filament to an extended linear conformation under force, thereby sustaining adhesion by reducing load at the point of contact between the bacterium and the target cell. CFA/I fimbriae require the least force to unwind, followed by CS20 fimbriae and then P-fimbriae, which require the highest unwinding force. We conclude from our electron microscopy reconstructions, modeling and force spectroscopy data that the target niche plays a central role in the biophysical properties of fimbriae that are critical for bacterial pathophysiology.

Preventive vaccines against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are being developed, many of which target common fimbrial colonization factors as the major constituent, based on empirical evidence that these function as protective antigens. Particularly, passive oral administration of ETEC anti-fimbrial antibodies prevent ETEC diarrhea. Little is, however, known regarding the specific mechanisms by which intestinal antibodies against ETEC fimbriae function to prevent disease. Using coli surface antigen 20 (CS20) fimbriae as a model ETEC colonization factor, we show using force spectroscopy that anti-fimbrial antibodies diminish fimbrial elasticity by inhibiting their natural capacity to unwind and rewind. In the presence of anti-CS20 antibodies the force required to unwind a single fimbria was increased several-fold and the extension length was shortened several-fold. Similar measurements in the presence of anti-CS20 Fab fragments did not show any effect, indicating that bivalent antibody binding is required to reduce fimbrial elasticity. Based on these findings, we propose a model for an in-vivo mechanism whereby antibody-mediated disruption of the biomechanical properties of CS20 fimbriae impedes sustained adhesion of ETEC to the intestinal mucosal surface. Further elucidation of the role played by intestinal antibodies in mechanical disruption of fimbrial function may provide insights relevant to ETEC vaccine development.

Uropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli establish urinary tract infections by attaching to host epithelial cells using adhesive organelles called fimbriae. Fimbriae are helix-like structures with a remarkable adaptability, offering safeguarding for bacteria exposed to changing fluid forces in the urinary tract. We challenged this property of P-fimbriae by cross-linking their subunits with shaft-specific antibodies and measuring the corresponding force response at a single organelle level. Our data show compromised extension and rewinding of P-fimbriae in the presence of antibodies and reduced fimbrial elasticity, which are important properties of fimbriae contributing to the ability of bacteria to cause urinary tract infections. The reduced elasticity found by cross-linking fimbrial subunits could thus be another assignment for antibodies; in addition to marking bacteria as foreign, antibodies physically compromise fimbrial function. We suggest that our assay and results will be a starting point for further investigations aimed at inhibiting sustained bacterial adhesion by antibodies.

Uropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli establish urinary tract infections by attaching to host epithelial cells using adhesive organelles called fimbriae. Fimbriae are helix-like structures with a remarkable adaptability, offering safeguarding for bacteria exposed to changing fluid forces in the urinary tract. We challenged this property of P-fimbriae by cross-linking their subunits with shaft-specific antibodies and measuring the corresponding force response at a single organelle level. Our data show compromised extension and rewinding of P-fimbriae in the presence of antibodies and reduced fimbrial elasticity, which are important properties of fimbriae contributing to the ability of bacteria to cause urinary tract infections. The reduced elasticity found by cross-linking fimbrial subunits could thus be another assignment for antibodies; in addition to marking bacteria as foreign, antibodies physically compromise fimbrial function. We suggest that our assay and results will be a starting point for further investigations aimed at inhibiting sustained bacterial adhesion by antibodies.

Uropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli establish urinary tract infections by attaching to host epithelial cells using adhesive organelles called fimbriae. Fimbriae are helix-like structures with a remarkable adaptability, offering safeguarding for bacteria exposed to changing fluid forces in the urinary tract. We challenged this property of P-fimbriae by cross-linking their subunits with shaft-specific antibodies and measuring the corresponding force response at a single organelle level. Our data show compromised extension and rewinding of P-fimbriae in the presence of antibodies and reduced fimbrial elasticity, which are important properties of fimbriae contributing to the ability of bacteria to cause urinary tract infections. The reduced elasticity found by cross-linking fimbrial subunits could thus be another assignment for antibodies; in addition to marking bacteria as foreign, antibodies physically compromise fimbrial function. We suggest that our assay and results will be a starting point for further investigations aimed at inhibiting sustained bacterial adhesion by antibodies.

Uropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli establish urinary tract infections by attaching to host epithelial cells using adhesive organelles called fimbriae. Fimbriae are helix-like structures with a remarkable adaptability, offering safeguarding for bacteria exposed to changing fluid forces in the urinary tract. We challenged this property of P-fimbriae by cross-linking their subunits with shaft-specific antibodies and measuring the corresponding force response at a single organelle level. Our data show compromised extension and rewinding of P-fimbriae in the presence of antibodies and reduced fimbrial elasticity, which are important properties of fimbriae contributing to the ability of bacteria to cause urinary tract infections. The reduced elasticity found by cross-linking fimbrial subunits could thus be another assignment for antibodies; in addition to marking bacteria as foreign, antibodies physically compromise fimbrial function. We suggest that our assay and results will be a starting point for further investigations aimed at inhibiting sustained bacterial adhesion by antibodies.

Uropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli establish urinary tract infections by attaching to host epithelial cells using adhesive organelles called fimbriae. Fimbriae are helix-like structures with a remarkable adaptability, offering safeguarding for bacteria exposed to changing fluid forces in the urinary tract. We challenged this property of P-fimbriae by cross-linking their subunits with shaft-specific antibodies and measuring the corresponding force response at a single organelle level. Our data show compromised extension and rewinding of P-fimbriae in the presence of antibodies and reduced fimbrial elasticity, which are important properties of fimbriae contributing to the ability of bacteria to cause urinary tract infections. The reduced elasticity found by cross-linking fimbrial subunits could thus be another assignment for antibodies; in addition to marking bacteria as foreign, antibodies physically compromise fimbrial function. We suggest that our assay and results will be a starting point for further investigations aimed at inhibiting sustained bacterial adhesion by antibodies.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are a major cause of diarrheal disease worldwide. Adhesion pili (or fimbriae), such as the CFA/I (colonization factor antigen I) organelles that enable ETEC to attach efficiently to the host intestinal tract epithelium, are critical virulence factors for initiation of infection. We characterized at single organelle level the intrinsic biomechanical properties and kinetics of individual CFA/I pili, demonstrating that weak external forces (7.5 pN) are sufficient to unwind the intact helical filament of this prototypical ETEC pilus and that it quickly regains its original structure when the force is removed. While the general relationship between exertion of force and an increase in the filament length for CFA/I pili associated with diarrheal disease is analogous to that of P-pili and type 1 pili, associated with urinary tract and other infections, the biomechanical properties of these different pili differ in key quantitative details. Unique features of CFA/I pili, including the significantly lower force required for unwinding, the higher extension speed at which the pili enter a dynamic range of unwinding, and the appearance of sudden force drops during unwinding can be attributed to morphological features of CFA/I pili including weak layer-to-layer interactions between subunits on adjacent turns of the helix, and the approximately horizontal orientation of pilin subunits with respect to the filament axis. Our results indicate that ETEC CFA/I pili are flexible organelles optimized to withstand harsh motion without breaking, resulting in continued attachment to the intestinal epithelium by the pathogenic bacteria that express these pili.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) attach to the host epithelium in the intestinal tract via specific adhesion organelles expressed on the cell membrane. We investigate, by force measuring optical tweezers, the intrinsic biomechanical properties and kinetics of the colonization factor I (CFA/I) at a single pilus level. The measurements indicate that CFA/I pili are helix-like structures that can both be unraveled to a linearized polymer by applying a small external force, 7.5 ± 1.5 pN but also regain its helix-like structure when the applied force is reduced. The data confirm that layer-to-layer interactions, that stabilize the helix-like structure, are much weaker than the interactions found in pili expressed by Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). It is also found, contrary to previous results assessed from UPEC pili, that the CFA/I undergo in some cases a sudden structural change, a force drop of ~2 pN, when unraveled from the helix-like configuration to an open helical linearized fiber. These data suggest a rotation of the filament about its helical axis, followed by a region in which the force required to extend the pili further increases rapidly. During this final elongation to a super-extended fiber, CFA/I pili do not show any structural transition as seen for UPEC pili. In addition, the CFA/I pili show faster kinetics than UPEC pili that allows for a larger dynamic regime of in vivo shear forces. The unfolding and refolding possibility points toward an organelle that has evolved to allow for dynamic damping of external forces and handling of harsh motion without breaking.