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Despite research history spanning more than a century, settlement patterns still hold a promise to contribute to the theories of large-scale processes in human history. Mostly they have been presented as passive imprints of past human activities and spatial interactions they shape have not been studied as the driving force of historical processes. While archaeological knowledge has been used to construct geographical theories of evolution of settlement there still exist gaps in this knowledge. Currently no theoretical framework has been adopted to explore them as spatial systems emerging from micro-choices of small population units. The goal of this thesis is to propose a conceptual model of adaptive settlement systems based on complex adaptive systems framework. The model frames settlement system formation processes as an adaptive system containing spatial features, information flows, decision making population units (agents) and forming cross scale feedback loops between location choices of individuals and space modified by their aggregated choices. The goal of the model is to find new ways of interpretation of archaeological locational data as well as closer theoretical integration of micro-level choices and meso-level settlement structures. The thesis is divided into five chapters, the first chapter is dedicated to conceptualisation of the general model based on existing literature and shows that settlement systems are inherently complex adaptive systems and therefore require tools of complexity science for causal explanations. The following chapters explore both empirical and theoretical simulated settlement patterns based dedicated to studying selected information flows and feedbacks in the context of the whole system. Second and third chapters explore the case study of the Stone Age settlement in Estonia comparing residential location choice principles of different periods. In chapter 2 the relation between environmental conditions and residential choice is explored statistically. The results confirm that the relation is significant but varies between different archaeological phenomena. In the third chapter hunter-fisher-gatherer and early agrarian Corded Ware settlement systems were compared spatially using inductive models. The results indicated a large difference in their perception of landscape regarding suitability for habitation. It led to conclusions that early agrarian land use significantly extended land use potential and provided a competitive spatial benefit. In addition to spatial differences, model performance was compared and the difference was discussed in the context of proposed adaptive settlement system model. Last two chapters present theoretical agent-based simulation experiments intended to study effects discussed in relation to environmental model performance and environmental determinism in general. In the fourth chapter the central place foragingmodel was embedded in the proposed model and resource depletion, as an environmental modification mechanism, was explored. The study excluded the possibility that mobility itself would lead to modelling effects discussed in the previous chapter. The purpose of the last chapter is the disentanglement of the complex relations between social versus human-environment interactions. The study exposed non-linear spatial effects expected population density can have on the system and the general robustness of environmental inductive models in archaeology to randomness and social effect. The model indicates that social interactions between individuals lead to formation of a group agency which is determined by the environment even if individual cognitions consider the environment insignificant. It also indicates that spatial configuration of the environment has a certain influence towards population clustering therefore providing a potential pathway to population aggregation. Those empirical and theoretical results showed the new insights provided by the complex adaptive systems framework. Some of the results, including the explanation of empirical results, required the conceptual model to provide a framework of interpretation.

‘Plurilingual Approaches to Spatial Education – Perspectives of Primary Schools in the German Context’ is a theory-based didactic study which centers on the role of migratory languages in primary geography education. Hereby, theories of space, concept development, and plurilingualism are discussed while migratory languages are recognized and actively applied in the content-based teaching of primary geography classes. A language-sensitive approach to plurilingual concept development processes is fostered in spatial education. The paper can be divided into three parts: Firstly, established theories on space, language, and plurilingualism are constituted. Highlighting possible interlinkages, a symbiosis of the different fields is developed for the educational context. Secondly, a didactical model is derived in order to be able to apply theory guided discussions to daily educational practices. Thereby, the approach of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is incorporated into the model. Subsequently, the newly generated didactic model is intensively discussed in all its complexity. In relationship to the model, an exemplary CLIL learning sequence is developed. Thirdly, this best-practice learning sequence is implemented in the field of primary school education in Germany. This process is accompanied by scientific research in order to gain insights into the concept development processes of eight-year-old learners. Here, development is understood as emergence rather then progression. Significant concept development processes as well as the core concept are retrieved through the application of the Grounded Theory Methodology (GTM). The paper closes with a critical discussion on the relevance of meaning-making processes in plurilingual spatial education and their prospects in the realm of geography didactics. ‘Plurilingual Approaches to Spatial Education – Perspectives of Primary Schools in the German Context’ ist eine theoriegeleitete Geographiedidaktikarbeit, welche die Rolle der lebensweltlichen Mehrsprachigkeit im geographischen Sachfachunterricht der Grundschule diskutiert. Die theoretische Fundierung setzt sich einerseits aus einem post-modernen Verständnis von Raumproduktion zusammen, welches auf die Arbeiten von Henri Lefebvre zurückzuführen ist. Diese gilt es in didaktischen Ansätzen für die geographische Bildung zugänglich zu machen, wie bereits in den Ansätzen von Dickel & Scharvogel (2012, 2013) gezeigt wurde. Neben der Diskussion um Raum und räumliche Bildung in Abgrenzung zum Diskurs um räumliche Orientierung, fokussiert die Arbeit andererseits Ansätze zur lebensweltlichen Mehrsprachigkeit auf der individuellen Ebene. Hierbei werden die vielfältigen Arbeiten zur migrationsbedingten lebensweltlichen Mehrsprachigkeit aus den Erziehungswissenschaften als Grundlage rezipiert. Ausgehend von diesen wird der Begriff der ‚inklusiven Mehrsprachigkeit‘ für die fachdidaktische Arbeit im Kontext von schulischer Bildung geprägt. Die Symbiose von Raum und Sprache ergibt sich (1) aus dem konzipierten und erlebten Raum, der mittels Sprache verhandelt wird, und (2) aus den gesellschaftlichen Entwicklungen der Globalisierung. Im Kontext von institutioneller Bildung dient der Ansatz des Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) deren erfolgreicher Symbiose. Im Sinne dessen stehen die Inhalte, der konzipierte und erlebte Raum, im Zentrum der Fachdidaktikarbeit, wodurch Ansätze zur räumlichen Bildung weiterentwickelt werden. Ausgehend von der sprachlichen Ebene im CLIL-Ansatz wird in dieser Arbeit ein sprachensensibler Ansatz entwickelt, welcher die migrationsbedingte Mehrsprachigkeit der heutigen Schüler und Schülerinnen aktiv anerkennt und nutzt. Somit wird Sprache in dieser Arbeit als bilaterales Symbol auf der Konzeptebene begriffen. Die Verschränkung von Inhalt und Sprache wird auf der theoretischen Ebene im Rahmen einer Modellentwicklung für die Didaktisierung von mehrsprachigen Unterrichtssequenzen im Sachfachunterricht vorangetrieben. Hierbei steht die Transparenz und Stringenz des Modells im Vordergrund, wobei Inhalt und Sprache(n) gleichberechtigt dargelegt werden. Im Hinblick auf die praktische Anwendbarkeit des theoriegeleiteten Didaktikmodells folgt die Entwicklung einer best-practice Lehr-Lern-Sequenz. Um exemplarische Einblicke in mehrsprachige Konzeptbildungsprozesse bei achtjährigen Grundschülern und -schülerinnen zu ermöglichen, folgt im weiteren Teil eine qualitativ-explorative Studie, welche die praktische Durchführung der entwickelten best-practice Lehr-Lern-Sequenz mittels vielfältiger Forschungsinstrumente begleitet. Ausgehend davon wird der diverse Datenkorpus, welcher sich aus Unterrichtsmitschnitten, Portfolios, Feldnotizen und Kindergruppeninterviews zusammensetzt, nach Ansätzen der Grounded Theory analysiert. Die Analyseergebnisse legen einen multiperspektivischen und komplexen Prozess der Fachkonzeptbildung ‚Raum‘ im Kontext von inklusiver Mehrsprachigkeit dar. Hierbei wird von einem emergenten Entwicklungsbegriff ausgegangen, indem Konzepte in Erscheinung treten und kein Lernfortschritt im Rahmen eines Konzepts aufgezeigt wird. Den Kern der Konzeptbildung bildet der Prozess der Orientierung, welcher eng mit dem der Verortung verknüpft ist. Grundvoraussetzungen für den Konzeptbildungsprozess sind jedoch zahlreiche Bedingungen im Kontext von mehrsprachiger Raumbildung. Die achtjährigen Lernenden benennen hierbei die Bedingungen: Lebenswelt, Erfahrung und Vertrauen. Ausgehend davon, wenden die Lernenden im Konzeptbildungsprozess mannigfaltige Strategien an, wie das Aufbauen von Relationen in sozialen Beziehungen. Weitere Strategien sind: Wiedergeben, Vergleichen und Problematisieren. Im weiteren Verlauf des Orientierungsprozesses, welcher den Raum für die achtjährigen Lernenden primär prägt, äußern die Schüler und Schülerinnen folgende Konsequenzen: Lernbewusstsein, Language Awareness, Eigenständigkeit und die Entstehung von (Sprach)Räumen. Diese wirken sich im Weiteren wiederum auf die Bedingungen aus, sodass der Konzeptbildungsprozess zirkulär vorangetrieben wird. Dieser Einblick in den diversen Prozess der mehrsprachigen Fachkonzeptbildung ‚Raum‘ eröffnet die Chance, Fachkonzepte sprachensensibel aufzubauen, auch von Seiten der Lernenden, und vor allem unter aktiver Nutzung der Migrationssprachen. Der Aufbau und die Entwicklung sprachensensibler Fachkonzepte unter Berücksichtigung von inklusiver Mehrsprachigkeit gelten somit als anknüpfendes Forschungsdesiderat. Als Anstoß dafür dient die abschließende kritische Diskussion der Analyseergebnisse vor dem Hintergrund der Forschung, der Schulbildung und der LehrerInnenausbildung, um nachfolgend die Ergebnisse der Studie nochmals im Hinblick auf die aufbauende Fachkonzeptentwicklung kritisch reflektieren zu können. Ziel der Arbeit ist es, die lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit der Grundschülerinnen und -schüler aktiv in die Fachkonzeptbildung ‚Raum‘ miteinzubinden. Somit wird ein sprachensensibler Ansatz zur Bildung von mehrsprachigen Fachkonzepten im Rahmen der räumlichen Bildung fokussiert. Sofern bereits inhaltlich dargelegt, umfasst die Arbeit strukturell drei Teile: Im ersten Teil wird die theoretische Fundierung mittels einer Symbiose der Teildisziplinen dargestellt. Zweitens wird ein Modell zur Konzeption von mehrsprachigem Sachfachunterricht im Sinne des CLIL-Ansatzes konzipiert. Der anschließende Entwurf einer Unterrichtseinheit dient als dessen exemplarische Anwendung. Im dritten Schritt der Arbeit, wird die Umsetzung der Einheit empirisch begleitet. Ziel der empirischen Arbeit ist es, Einblicke in den Bildungsprozess von mehrsprachigen Fachkonzepten bei achtjährigen Grundschülerinnen und -schülern zu ermöglichen.

This thesis evaluates the performance of bicycle sharing systems (BSS), autonomous systems of accessible bicycles that can be easily used for one way trips, and determines whether they are successful at achieving promoted social and environmental outcomes through quantitative and qualitative methods. Such systems are typically surrounded by positive narratives of success, health, environmental and social benefits. This work challenges these notions. This thesis begins with the formalisation of BSS station level and trip data revealing alternative data contained within. Combined with spatiotemporal data analysis, this allows the estimation of trips, a potential measure of success. Due to most operators not providing consistent or comparable metrics of usage this work opens this heavily promoted technological transport innovation’s performance for public scrutiny. Performance estimates of 75 case studies show a majority having less than two trips per day per bicycle, suggesting a poor investment, regardless of existing social justice issues and exaggerated environmental benefits. Using this metric this work determines which attributes impact performance. While station density and cycling infrastructure, among others, are found to impact performance, results challenge promoted practice. Formalisation yielded rebalancing, the moving of bicycles to adjust to demand exceeding supply. Spatiotemporal data analysis and interviews with operators provides the first description of applied rebalancing, providing an alternative perspective to the many theoretical optimisation models. Results show rebalancing is spatially selective and influencing BSS outcomes, potentially contrary to its purpose. Finally, this thesis, through a critical urban sustainability perspective, presents darker aspects of BSS, beyond the golden narratives, showing conflicts of interest, controversy and the commercialisation of an initially environmental and anti-consumerism concept. Existential questions are raised due to BSS, mostly privately operated, providing benefits to an already advantaged class while public space is privatised and urban advertising increased. This work concludes by suggesting that alternative investment to bicycle sharing systems, such as cycling infrastructure, may be more beneficial and just. (SC - Sciences) -- UCL, 2016

The proliferation of Nature Parks in Europe and the change in the function of these areas has brought forth questions about the meaning and extent to which Nature Parks encourage practices for regional sustainable development. As such, research into this subject is ongoing. Since the creation of the first Nature Park in Europe some five or six decades ago, today, the functions of many of these areas have metamorphosed; triggered by increasing knowledge about the importance of existing ecosystem services in park areas, on adjacent local inhabitants. Consequently, parks have moved from areas of pure conservation to areas that combine environmental preservation with other socioeconomic demands in regional development. When this multifunctional characteristic is fixed into various regional policies, Nature Parks are generally interpreted by policy makers as necessary tools for realizing sustainable development in local areas. For the fact that parks have assumed new functions, it is certain, there are modifications in the strategies adopted for managing these areas. As a result, this study holds that the strength of Nature Parks in mitigating resource depletion, to improve socioeconomic prosperity and participatory regional processes, in rural areas in Luxembourg, is explicitly linked to the development strategies intended for these areas. The study draws on two official Nature Parks in Luxembourg (Haute Sûre and Our), to explain contemporary strategies to simultaneously integrate activities of ecological conservation, economic development, social well-being and resource governance. Therefore, the study sticks on the concept of green economy, an integrated notion in the framework of sustainable development, as for example, promoted by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2011), to draw a line between theory and practice of Nature Park development in Luxembourg. To comprehend the role and impacts of Nature Parks in regional development, the study has been guided by a qualitative methodology. Methods were chosen based on flexibility and the strength to provide useful insights about parks’ activities. This provided responses to the main research question; to what extent are strategies contributing to the appreciation of Nature Parks by local, regional and national stakeholders, as instruments for greening local economies, for the purpose of attaining sustainable regional development in Luxembourg? The dissertation presents different dimensions in which Nature Parks in Luxembourg are trying to promote regional sustainability. It made use of chapters that describe and analyse ecological policies for improving ecosystem services. This is mainly guided by schemes for environmental education, biodiversity contracts and agricultural advice that convey modernisation into traditional agricultural practices. Undeniably, approaches affixed for the development of Nature Parks have been contributing in reshaping local economies. Not only are these strategies important in integrating economic development and ecological conservation, but also, the outcomes via innovative and diversified projects have fairly improved approaches for local production. A new rural identity is now being developed, standing tall as the main strength behind the marketing of locally branded Nature Park products. Apart from the fact that organic production is still a matter of controversy, concrete social policies are lacking while local participation in Nature Parks’ activities is a critical challenge and absolutely insufficient. Away from researching on the ecological, economic, social and governance approaches for greening Nature Parks, the study has also explained certain challenges caused mainly by, but not limited to, differences between stakeholders in conceptualising Nature Parks as tool for local/regional development. The emerging drawbacks from these limitations vis-à-vis regional projects are enough reason to rethink the extent to which Nature Parks in Luxembourg encourage sustainable regional development. The research reasons that attaining sustainable development in Nature Parks is a critical challenge. This can be most effective if predestined strategies logically integrate aspects of environmental conservation, economic prosperity and social well-being, including attractive policies of regional governance.

Over the last century, the circulation of money has been used by historians as an indicator of the relationships between people across space and time. The introduction of a single currency, the euro, on January 1, 2002 in 12 European countries offers the opportunity to trace the paths of international mobility in that part of the world. This thesis aims to provide an account of the relations - specific and banal - established between European territories from the analyses of the complex shapes formed by the monetary distribution. The approach is based on the design of a conceptual model formalising the internationalisation of flows exchanged between places in a specified time period. The intensity, diversity and scope of monetary circulation are then matched to diverse forms of international mobility through empirical modelling. This hypothetico-deductive approach is based on the study of more than 20,000 money-bags surveyed in France between June 2002 and December 2011. A case study on Luxembourg allows for observing these traces of international mobility at a finer spatial scale. These analyses reveal a series of factors influencing the spread of foreign coins that fall into three categories: spatio-temporal, territorial and social effects. Finally, an individual-based simulation model is built to study the possible interactions between the different factors in a dynamic and multilevel framework. The thesis concludes that the analysis of money circulation is an accurate way to understand, analyse and differentiate the patterns of international mobility in Europe at different scales.

European Union integration policy has challenged traditional border functions resulting in regionalisation processes and policy makers facing diverse functional interdependencies across multiple scales and territories. Local and regional authorities participate in a European multi-level governance system. Within regions, cross-border cooperation institutionalises distinct forms of governance. This thesis investigates the regionalisation process launched across borders at a subnational level using the case study of the Greater Region Saar-Lor-Lux. Conceptually, this study defines regionalization as construction of a region. This analysis of cross-border cooperation in the Greater Region explains “cross-border supraregionalisation” through three processes. First, the discursive construction of a cross-border strategy illustrates the complexity of joint positioning. The metropolitan impetus advocated in the Greater Region reveals the ambivalent objectives of the partners and the dominance of the metropolitan discourse at the national and European level. Second, beyond the institutional cooperation space (“Vertragraum”), the space of the mandate (“Mandatsraum”) serves as a medium to territorialise the joint strategy. It results from the ideal projection of the strategy in space and thus, evokes a bordering process. This “soft space” is constantly negotiated between the partners and illustrates patterns of cross-border spatial empowerment. Third, the study analyses the extent to which cross-border partners delegate responsibilities and legitimacy to joint cross-border institutions, especially through the innovative legal instrument European Grouping for Territorial Cooperation.