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The presacral vertebrae have various secondary centers of ossification, whose timing of fusion can be used for age estimation of human skeletal remains up to the middle to the latter third decade. However, detailed information about the age at which these secondary centers of ossification fuse has been lacking. In this study, the timing of epiphyseal union in presacral vertebrae was studied in a sample of modern Portuguese skeletons (57 females and 47 males) between the ages of 9 and 30, taken from the Lisbon documented skeletal collection. A detailed photographic record of these epiphyses and the age ranges for the different stages of epiphyseal union are provided. Partial union of epiphyses was observed from 11 to 27 years of age. In general, centers of ossification begin to fuse first in the cervical and lumbar vertebrae, followed by centers of ossification in the thoracic region. The first center of ossification to complete fusion is usually that of the mammillary process in lumbar vertebrae. This is usually followed by that of the transverse process, spinous transverse process, and annular ring, regardless of vertebra type. There were no statistically significant sex differences in timing of fusion, but there was a trend toward early maturation in females for some vertebra or epiphyses. Bilateral epiphyses did not show statistically significant differences in timing of fusion. This study offers information on timing of fusion of diverse epiphyseal locations useful for age estimation of complete or fragmented human skeletal remains., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Sexual dimorphism is important for intraspecific variation and well studied in the human skeleton. In the thoracic part of the spine sexual dimorphism is expected for differences in the respiratory system related to body mass, lung capacity, and energetics, and in the reproductive system for adaptations to pregnancy (lower spine lordosis, posture). However, little is known about sexual dimorphism in this anatomical region. We use three-dimensional (3D)-geometric morphometrics to test hypotheses on sexual dimorphism in the first 10 thoracic vertebrae (T1–T10). Forty-six 3D-landmarks were measured on vertebrae of 24 adult females and males of known age and sex. Results confirm that male vertebrae are consistently larger than female ones. Males show more dorsally oriented transverse processes and relatively larger vertebral bodies in upper and lower thoracic vertebrae. Sexual dimorphism in lower thoracic vertebrae affects the orientation of the spinous processes, which is more horizontal in females but more caudal in males. Such regional pattering of sexual dimorphism emerges also from principal component analyses reflecting a complex interaction between the effects of sex and serial position on shape variation. Greater dorsal orientation of male transverse processes reorients the ribs and could lead to greater radial thorax diameters. This fits with greater male respiratory capacities, but may indicate also greater invagination of the male spine within the thorax. Horizontal orientation of the spinous processes in females could allow for a greater thoraco-lumbar lordosis during pregnancy, but more comparative research is necessary to test these hypotheses., Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), The Leakey Foundation, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Human beings growing‐up in adverse biocultural environments, including undernutrition, exposure to infection, economic oppression/poverty, heavy workloads, high altitude, war, racism, and religious/ethnic oppression, may be stunted, have asymmetric body proportions, be wasted, be overweight, and be at greater risk for disease. One group of researchers explains this as a consequence of “developmental programming” (DP). Another group uses the phrase “predictive adaptive response” (PAR). The DP group tends to view the alterations as having permanent maladaptive effects that place people at risk for disease. The PAR group considers the alterations at two levels of adaptation: (1) “short‐term adaptive responses for immediate survival” and (2) “predictive responses required to ensure postnatal survival to reproductive age.” The differences between the DP and PAR hypotheses are evaluated in this article. A life history theory analysis rephrases the DP versus PAR debate from disease or adaptation to the concept of “trade‐offs.” Even under good conditions, the stages of human life history are replete with trade‐offs for survival, productivity, and reproduction. Under adverse conditions, trade‐offs result in reduced survival, poor growth, constraints on physical activity, and poor reproductive outcomes. Models of human development may need to be refined to accommodate a greater range of the biological and cultural sources of adversity as well as their independent and interactive influences., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

The research tryp to Lisbon of L.R. was supported by a grant from the Programa de Movilidad de Personal Joven Investigador from the Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid., This study attempts to fill a persistent gap in the literature by documenting the timing of epiphyseal union at the vertebral end of the ribs in a sample of modern Portuguese skeletons. The skeletal remains of 53 females and 45 males, between the ages of 11 and 30, were taken from the Lisbon documented skeletal collection. Individuals in the sample have been previously described as being representative of a middle‐to‐low socioeconomic segment of the early 20th century Lisbon population. Three anatomical locations were examined for epiphyseal union: the head, the articular tubercle and the nonarticular tubercle. The first epiphysis to show partial union is that of the nonarticular tubercle (females, 11–19 years; males, 11–19 years), followed by the epiphysis of the articular tubercle (females, 11–20 years; males, 16–20 years), and finally by the head epiphysis (females, 15–24 years; males, 16–22 years), which can still show incomplete epiphyseal closure at 25 and 24 years for females and males, respectively. A trend for earlier female maturation was observed, but the statistical tests only confirmed this result for some ribs and age groups. No directional asymmetry was found, but a significant fluctuating asymmetry was observed in all three epiphyses. A preliminary analysis showed that the asymmetric group of individuals in the study sample includes all the rural‐to‐urban migrants, relative to the symmetric group. Am J Phys Anthropol, Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia. Grant Number: SFRH/BPD/22142/2005, Programa de Movilidad de Personal Joven Investigador from the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Objectives Sagittal and axial rib orientation relative to the spine are two factors that modify rib cage morphology during ontogeny. Some studies suggest that these factors do not operate in the same way at the upper (ribs 1–5) and lower thorax (ribs 6–10) during postnatal growth, but it is unknown if the ontogenetic thoracic changes are produced by morphological changes of the ribs (intrinsic rib factors) or by external factors related to costal joints (extrinsic rib factors). Material and methods To clarify these questions, we applied 3D geometric morphometrics of landmarks and sliding semilandmarks (N = 20/rib) to 280 individual ribs (1–10) of Homo sapiens comprising the entire human ontogeny and growth simulations were carried out. Results PCA shows that intrinsic rib factors (rib torsion and axial rib curvature) are ontogenetic factors of variability that contribute to configuring the adult thorax shape. Moreover, growth simulations and regression slopes suggest that the upper thorax unit is comprised by ribs 1–7 and the lower unit at least by ribs 8–10. Discussion These results suggest anatomical constraints for ontogenetic rib variation, since ribs 1–7 (true ribs) are directly linked to the sternum. Moreover, these results are supported by functional anatomy because pulmonary kinematics would influence the upper unit and diaphragmatic kinematics would influence the lower one. Our findings are relevant not only to understanding how changes at individual ribs contribute to the adult thorax morphology, but also to the development and evolution of the modern human rib cage., Ministerio de Ciencia y Competitividad, Leakey Foundation, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Financial support for the digitization of the anthropometric data and the radiograph films was provided by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation through their program “Quantifying Healthy Birth, Growth and Development knowledge integration”, contract number OPP1125811, Barry Bogin, Principle Investigator, Plasticity in the growth of body segments between populations has been researched in relation to migration, temporal change and high‐altitude studies. We study the within population variation in body segments, thus controlling for some of the environmental and genetic differences that could be at play in between populations studies. We test a version of the thrifty phenotype hypothesis, where the growth of head‐trunk and hand are prioritized due to their functional significance over height and leg growth. A total of 3913 Guatemalan, rural, semi‐urban and urban, Maya and Ladino children 6 to 15 years old were studied. Height, sitting height, leg length, and metacarpal length were studied in relation to three proxies for living conditions: height‐ and leg length‐for‐age, and maternal education. Estimation statistics and null hypothesis significance testing were used to analyze the data. Metatarsal length and sitting height values were higher than height and leg length respectively. Relative metacarpal length was conserved across height‐for‐age groups. Females were less affected than males for metacarpal length and sitting height, but more affected for leg length. Conclusion: Our results agree with the thrifty phenotype hypothesis, where metacarpal and sitting height growth would be prioritized over height and leg length due to greater functional significance., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Objectives The human respiratory apparatus is characterized by sexual dimorphism, the cranial airways of males being larger (both absolutely and relatively) than those of females. These differences have been linked to sex-specific differences in body composition, bioenergetics, and respiratory function. However, whether morpho-functional variation in the thorax is also related to these features is less clear. We apply 3D geometric morphometrics to study these issues and their implications for respiratory function. Material and methods Four hundred two landmarks and semilandmarks were measured in CT-reconstructions of rib cages from adult healthy subjects (Nmale = 18; Nfemale = 24) in maximal inspiration (MI) and maximal expiration (ME). After Procrustes registration, size and shape data were analyzed by mean comparisons and regression analysis. Respiratory function was quantified through functional size, which is defined as the difference of rib cage size between MI and ME. Results Males showed significantly larger thorax size (p < .01) and functional size (p < .05) than females. In addition, the 3D-shape differed significantly between sexes (p < .01). Male rib cages were wider (particularly caudally) and shorter, with more horizontally oriented ribs when compared to females. While thorax widening and rib orientation were unrelated to allometry, thorax shortening showed a slight allometric signal. Conclusions Our findings are in line with previous research on sexual dimorphism of the respiratory system. However, we add that thorax shortening observed previously in males is the only feature caused by allometry. The more horizontally oriented ribs and the wider thorax of males may indicate a greater diaphragmatic contribution to rib cage kinematics than in females, and differences in functional size fit with the need for greater oxygen intake in males., Objetivos El aparato respiratorio humano se caracteriza por un dimorfismo sexual, siendo las vías respiratorias craneales de los machos más grandes (tanto absoluta como relativamente) que las de las hembras. Estas diferencias se han relacionado con diferencias específicas de cada sexo en la composición corporal, la bioenergética y la función respiratoria. Sin embargo, no está tan claro si la variación morfofuncional en el tórax también está relacionada con estas características. Aplicamos morfometría geométrica 3D para estudiar estas cuestiones y sus implicaciones para la función respiratoria. Material y métodos Se midieron cuatrocientos dos puntos de referencia y semipuntos de referencia en reconstrucciones por TC de cajas torácicas de sujetos adultos sanos (Nmale = 18; Nfemale = 24) en inspiración máxima (IM) y espiración máxima (EM). Después del registro de Procrustes, los datos de tamaño y forma se analizaron mediante comparaciones de medias y análisis de regresión. La función respiratoria se cuantificó a través del tamaño funcional, que se define como la diferencia del tamaño de la caja torácica entre IM y EM. Resultados Los machos mostraron un tamaño de tórax significativamente mayor (p <0.01) y un tamaño funcional (p <0.05) que las hembras. Además, la forma 3D difirió significativamente entre sexos (p < 0.01). Las cajas torácicas de los machos eran más anchas (particularmente caudalmente) y más cortas, con costillas más orientadas horizontalmente en comparación con las de las hembras. Mientras que el ensanchamiento del tórax y la orientación de las costillas no estaban relacionados con la alometría, el acortamiento del tórax mostró una ligera señal alométrica. Conclusiones Nuestros hallazgos están en línea con investigaciones previas sobre el dimorfismo sexual del sistema respiratorio. Sin embargo, agregamos que el acortamiento del tórax observado previamente en los machos es la única característica causada por la alometría. Las costillas más orientadas horiz, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Leakey Foundation, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Objectives International growth charts have been used in the past decades to identify atypical growth and diagnose the nutritional status of individuals. The aim of this study was to construct and compare growth patterns of normo-nourished children between 6–59 months from Afghanistan, Haiti, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to assess if it would be worth developing growth charts at a national level. Methods We used an international sample of 46 466 subjects (53.7% female; 46.3% male) from the aforementioned regions. To create the growth charts, we used different statistical methodologies: the Lambda-Mu-Sigma (LMS), LMSP, and LMST models, and regression models based on fractional polynomials. The LMSP models were the ones that fitted our data best and were therefore the ones used to make comparisons between countries using percentiles (3rd, 50th, and 97th). Results We found that Haitian children were both, taller and heavier than their Afghan and Congolese equals of the same ages. Moreover, differences were bigger in the highest percentiles (i.e., 97th percentile). These differences might be the result of the influence that genetics and diverse social and environmental contexts have on growth rates. Conclusions Using the same international reference standards for all populations could result in the overestimation or underestimation of the proportion of malnourished children. In light of our results, we recommend the future development of national and regional growth charts to provide health workers with more precise tools to evaluate the nutritional status in the child population., La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) diseñó normas y tablas de crecimiento para menores de cinco años a partir de un estudio semilongitudinal con datos de 8.500 niños y niñas de diferentes orígenes (Brasil, Ghana, India, Noruega, Omán y Estados Unidos). Dicho estudio, publicado en 2006, aplicó un modelo LMS y tenía por objetivo contar con patrones “internacionales” que pudieran utilizarse como referencia en todos los países del mundo. Especialmente para su utilización por parte de organizaciones humanitarias que trabajan en terreno diagnosticando la desnutrición infantil en situaciones de emergencia. En nuestro estudio, llevado a cabo en colaboración con Acción Contra el Hambre, construimos y comparamos las curvas de crecimiento de niños y niñas aparentemente sanos y normonutridos de tres países diferentes (Afganistán, Haití y República Democrática del Congo). Utilizamos una muestra de casi 122.000 sujetos (59.773 niños y 61.255 niñas) de las mismas edades y aplicamos diversos métodos matemáticos para el modelado de las curvas (LMS, LMSP, LMST y regresión polinómica). Los resultados mostraron por una parte, que el mejor modelo de ajuste fue el LMSP y por otra, que los menores de los tres países analizados crecen a diferente ritmo. Los niños haitianos entre 6 y 59 meses, tienen un mayor tamaño corporal que sus iguales congoleños y afganos, tanto en peso como en longitud o talla y estas diferencias son especialmente llamativas en los percentiles más altos. Teniendo en cuenta esta evidencia, es necesario reconsiderar si la utilización de idénticos estándares para todas las poblaciones del mundo es apropiado. Si las velocidades de crecimiento de los niños con distinto origen poblacional no son iguales, como aquí se ha demuestra, las tablas internacionales de la OMS pueden llevar fácilmente a un diagnóstico erróneo, sobreestimando o subestimando las tasas de desnutrición crónica o de bajo peso. Sin negar el valor de los estándares de la OMS, surge la necesidad de de, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Community health workers (CHWs) play an important role in the detection and referral of children with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) in many countries. However, distance to health facilities remains a significant obstacle for caregivers to attend treatment services, resulting in SAM treatment coverage rates below 40% in most areas of intervention. The inclusion of SAM treatment into the current curative tasks of CHWs has been proposed as an approach to increase coverage. A literature review of operational experiences was conducted to identify opportunities and challenges associated with this model. A total of 18 studies providing evidence on coverage, clinical outcomes, quality of care, and/or cost-effectiveness were identified. The studies demonstrate that CHWs can identify and treat uncomplicated cases of SAM, achieving cure rates above the minimum standards and reducing default rates to less than 8%. Although the evidence is limited, these findings suggest that early detection and treatment in the community can increase coverage of SAM in a cost-effective manner. Adequate training and close supervision were found to be essential to ensure high-quality performance of CHWs. Motivation through financial compensation and other incentives, which improve their social recognition, was also found to be an important factor contributing to high-quality performance. Another common challenge affecting performance is insufficient stock of key commodities (i.e., ready-to-use therapeutic food). The review of the evidence ultimately demonstrates that the successful delivery of SAM treatment via CHWs will require adaptations in nutrition and health policy and practice., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Over 500 victims of the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) were buried in the cemetery of La Carcavilla (Palencia, Spain). White material, observed in several burials, was analyzed with Raman spectroscopy and powder XRD, and confirmed to be lime. Archaeological findings at La Carcavilla's cemetery show that the application of lime was used in an organized way, mostly associated with coffinless interments of victims of Francoist repression. In burials with a lime cast, observations made it possible to draw conclusions regarding the presence of soft tissue at the moment of deposition, the sequence of events, and the presence of clothing and other evidence. This study illustrates the importance of analyzing a burial within the depositional environment and taphonomic context., Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Universidad de Burdeos, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Objectives: To analyze the effect of altitude on weight and prematurity at birth in the Province of Catamarca (Argentina), between the years 1994 and 2003. Methods: Records of 22,628 newborns were collected from the vital statistics of the census of Catamarca. Weight was recategorized to include low birth weight ( 2,000 m). Nonparametric statistical tests were performed. Results: Differences were found in birth weight between sexes and in the incidence of low birth weight depending on altitude. This pattern changed according to gestational age, because those sexual differences were nonexistent or lower in preterm neonates with certain advantages for females. Moreover, it was found that the effects of hypoxia were not reflected in birth weight until later stages of intrauterine development. Conclusions: To be female appears to be a benefit under conditions of prematurity and high altitude. The increased incidence of prematurity due to altitude increase may reflect an adaptive advantage of preterm birth under these conditions. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 27:526–529, 2015., Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (España), National University of Catamarca, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

The two hominoid teeth—a central upper incisor (NMB G.a.9.) and an upper molar (FSL 213981)—from the Middle Miocene site of La Grive-Saint-Alban (France) have been traditionally attributed to Dryopithecus fontani (Hominidae: Dryopithecinae). However, during the last decade discoveries in the Vallès-Penedès Basin (Spain) have shown that several hominoid genera were present in Western Europe during the late Middle Miocene. As a result, the attribution of the dryopithecine teeth from La Grive is not as straightforward as previously thought. In fact, similarities with the upper incisor of Pierolapithecus have led to suggestions that either the latter taxon is present at La Grive, or that it is a junior synonym of Dryopithecus. Here, we re-describe the La Grive teeth and critically revise their taxonomic assignment based on metrical and morphological comparisons with other Middle to Late Miocene hominoids from Europe and Turkey, with particular emphasis on those from the Vallès-Penedès Basin. Our results suggest that the I1 differs in several respects from those of Pierolapithecus and Hispanopithecus, so that an attribution to either Dryopithecus or Anoiapithecus (for which this tooth is unknown) seems more likely. The molar, in turn, most likely corresponds to the M1 of a female individual. Compared to other Middle Miocene taxa, its occlusal morphology enables its distinction from Pierolapithecus, whereas relative crown height agrees well with Dryopithecus. Therefore, based on available evidence, we support the traditional attribution of the La Grive hominoid to D. fontani., Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Generalitat de Catalunya, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub