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Species delimitation is at the core of biological sciences. During the last decade, molecular-based approaches have advanced the field by providing additional sources of evidence to classical, morphology-based taxonomy. However, taxonomy has not yet fully embraced molecular species delimitation beyond threshold-based, single-gene approaches, and taxonomic knowledge is not commonly integrated to multi-locus species delimitation models. Here we aim to bridge empirical data (taxonomic and genetic) with recently developed coalescent-based species delimitation approaches. We use the multispecies coalescent model as implemented in two Bayesian methods (DISSECT/STACEY and BP&P) to infer species hypotheses. In both cases, we account for phylogenetic uncertainty (by not using any guide tree) and taxonomic uncertainty (by measuring the impact of using or not a priori taxonomic assignment to specimens). We focus on an entire Neotropical tribe of butterflies, the Haeterini (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae). We contrast divergent taxonomic opinion—splitting, lumping and misclassifying species—in the light of different phenotypic classifications proposed to date. Our results provide a solid background for the recognition of 22 species. The synergistic approach presented here overcomes limitations in both traditional taxonomy (e.g. by recognizing cryptic species) and molecular-based methods (e.g. by recognizing structured populations, and not raise them to species). Our framework provides a step forward towards standardization and increasing reproducibility of species delimitations.

Flight is a key innovation in the evolutionary success of insects and essential to dispersal, territoriality, courtship and oviposition. Wing shape influences flight performance and selection likely acts to maximize performance for conducting essential behaviours that in turn results in the evolution of wing shape. As wing shape also contributes to fitness, optimal shapes for particular flight behaviours can be assessed with aerodynamic predictions and placed in an ecomorphological context. Butterflies in the tribe Haeterini (Nymphalidae) are conspicuous members of understorey faunas in lowland Neotropical forests. Field observations indicate that the five genera in this clade differ in flight height and behaviour: four use gliding flight at the forest floor level, and one utilizes flapping flight above the forest floor. Nonetheless, the association of ground level gliding flight behaviour and wing shape has never been investigated in this or any other butterfly group. We used landmark-based geometric morphometrics to test whether wing shapes in Haeterini and their close relatives reflected observed flight behaviours. Four genera of Haeterini and some distantly related Satyrinae showed significant correspondence between wing shape and theoretical expectations in performance trade-offs that we attribute to selection for gliding in ground effect. Forewing shape differed between sexes for all taxa, and male wing shapes were aerodynamically more efficient for gliding flight than corresponding females. This suggests selection acts differentially on male and female wing shapes, reinforcing the idea that sex-specific flight behaviours contribute to the evolution of sexual dimorphism. Our study indicates that wing shapes in Haeterini butterflies evolved in response to habitat-specific flight behaviours, namely gliding in ground effect along the forest floor, resulting in ecomorphological partitions of taxa in morphospace. The convergent flight behaviour and wing morphology between tribes of Satyrinae suggest that the flight environment may offset phylogenetic constraints. Overall, this study provides a basis for exploring similar patterns of wing shape evolution in other taxa that glide in ground effect.

Spatial movement is fundamental to ecological and evolutionary processes because of its role in habitat colonization and diversification. This study examines the dispersal potential of two Neotropical butterflies, Morpho achilles and Bia actorion, to estimate the time necessary to expand into their current geographical distribution in the Amazon Forest. To do so, we use life history data, dispersal rates estimated from mark-release-recapture experiments, and reaction-diffusion or integro- difference equations to calculate an annual speed for the wave of dispersal across suitable unoccupied habitat. We show that times required for these butterflies to disperse across Amazonia are orders of magnitude smaller than phylogenetic estimates of the species ages. We compare dispersal rates of Morpho and Bia to other Neotropical butterflies, including taxa that could have moved relatively rapidly through Central America and Mexico. Our findings demonstrate that butterflies (and possibly many other organisms) have tremendous potential for rapid colonization of suitable habitats. Our results also suggest that dispersal can easily increase local diversity in areas where speciation has been attributed mostly to vicariance (such as the eastern slope of the Andes).

A new phylogenetic hypothesis for the Neotropical butterfly genus Hamadryas, based on the combination of a morphological matrix, one mitochondrial (COI) and four nuclear markers (CAD, RpS5, EF1a, and Wingless), is presented. Results from analyses of the molecular evidence are compared with a previously published morphological phylogeny. Molecular data and the analysis of the complete dataset support the monophyly of Hamadryas and most sister groups suggested by morphological data alone. The addition of DNA sequences to the morphological matrix helped define species groups for which no morphological synapomorphies were found. Partitioned Bremer support indicates that COI, CAD, and morphology were consistently in agreement with the combined evidence tree. In contrast, signal from the nuclear markers Rps5, EF1a, and Wingless showed indifference at most levels of the tree, and minor conflict at nodes solving the relationships between species groups. Though resolved, the combined evidence tree shows low resample values, particularly among species groups whose relationships were characterized by short internodes. A reassessment about the pattern of character change for sound production is presented and discussed.

This study examines the contribution of early-stages and adult characters to the reconstruction of the phylogeny of Brassolini butterflies. Parsimony analyses used both equal weights and implied weights, and a series of analyses were performed. First, we analysed adult and early-stages partitions independently and in combination for a subset of 27 species; in these cases the matrices were mostly complete. Whereas the adult partition alone produced a topology that was well resolved and congruent with previous studies, the early-stages partition produced a poorly resolved tree under equal weights. Furthermore, implied weights produced a well-resolved early-stages topology that differed significantly from the adult topology. When both partitions were combined for 27 species, implied weights yielded a topology that resembled the adult tree except for the positions of Bia and Penetes, but statistical node support was generally lower. This suggests that stochastic noise increased when early-stage characters were added to the adult partition, but the combined partitions topology was not statistically different from that based on adult characters alone. Second, given that preserved early stages are not as readily available as adults, we analysed a matrix including 45 species in which early-stage data were missing for 18 species, and compared the topology to that produced by the adult partition alone. Results were similar to the analyses including fewer species; the combined partitions tree was similar to that from the adult partition except for the position of Bia and Penetes. We compare our findings to other genus-level phylogenetic studies within Lepidoptera that have also used early-stages and adult characters.

This study compiles previously published morphological, colour and behavioural characters and includes new DNA sequence data for eight markers (one mitochondrial and seven nuclear) to re-evaluate phylogenetic relationships and estimate times of divergence for Morpho butterflies using parsimony and Bayesian methods. We note an effect of missing data on phylogenetic inference and calculations of Partitioned Bremer Support. Morphology and DNA trees were moderately congruent, and the combined analyses of all data included elements of both sources. Both morphology and DNA support the monophyly of Morpho and the early separation of the sister pair M. marcus plus M. eugenia, but trees from different data sources are congruent mostly at derived nodes, and differ at several internal nodes. The analyses of combined data indicate that Morpho is composed of four clades each of which include one or more previously proposed subgenera. The subgenera Pessonia and Morpho were not monophyletic, and to address this issue we propose that Pessonia, syn.nov. be subsumed within Morpho. The ancestor of Morpho probably arose during the Oligocene, and most diversification seems to have occurred during the late Miocene. S-DIVA analysis suggests eastern Andean region as the ancestral area for Morpho, and that the South American Atlantic Forest was colonized multiple times.

This study uses 80 morphological characters and cladistic analysis to evaluate the monophyly and phylogenetic relationships of 18 genera that constitute the butterfly tribe Brassolini. Most characters derive from genitalia, confirming previous generic definitions based mainly on wing characters, and showing that 16 of 18 genera are monophyletic. Mimoblepia Casagrande, syn.n. was subsumed within Opoptera Aurivillius to address the paraphyly of the latter, but resolution of the status of Aponarope Casagrande requires further study. The results suggest that the Brassolini includes six suprageneric groups/clades. Although this study verifies some genus-level relationships put forward over 100 years ago, some new hypotheses of relationships are proposed. Tracing larval host plant use onto the Brassolini phylogeny indicates that species in this tribe retain the use of Arecaceae and Poaceae from their ‘satyroid’ ancestors.

Phylogenetic relationships among Heliconiinae genera are proposed based on early-stage and adult morphology. Parsimony analyses of forty-nine species in twenty-nine genera indicate that Heliconiinae can be divided into four main groups: (1) Pardopsis, Acraea and Actinote; (2) Cethosia plus Neotropical genera; (3) Oriental genera and (4) fritillaries. Analyses of adult characters suggested that Oriental genera form a monophyletic group, whereas those of adult plus early-stage characters artificially split this group into three separate lineages. Our character set does not contain enough phylogenetic information to resolve relationships among fritillary genera with confidence, and further studies of this group are needed. The classification of the Heliconiinae is revised based on our results.