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Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly used for wildlife research and monitoring, but little information exists on their potential effect on marine mammals. We assessed the effects of a UAV on the behavior of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) in Australia. Focal follows of ten right whale mother-calf pairs were conducted using a theodolite. Control data were recorded for 30 min, and then a DJI Inspire 1 Pro was flown above the whales for 10 min at 5 m altitude. Potential changes to horizontal behavior (swim speed and turning angle) and surfacing pattern (interbreath intervals) were investigated by comparing mother-calf behavior before and during UAV approaches. Changes in respiration rate were used to quantify energetic effects. We also explored acoustic cue perceptibility of the UAV at 5, 10, and 30 m altitude, by measuring the received UAV underwater noise level on whales equipped with acoustic tags (DTAGs). The received noise levels were 86.0 ± 3.9 dB re 1 μPa, while the measured ambient noise was 80.7 ± 7.3 dB re 1 μPa in the same frequency band (100–1,500 Hz). No behavioral response to the UAV was observed. This provides support for UAVs as a noninvasive tool to study baleen whale behavior and ecophysiology.

Southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) populations were severelydepleted in past centuries by intensive whaling, but many are now recover-ing after receiving international protection in 1935 (IWC 2012). In the SouthAtlantic, the population of southern right whales that migrates each australwinter to calve at Península Valdés, Argentina (Payne 1986; IWC 2001,2012), began experiencing unusually high calf deaths in 2003. The deathspeaked in 2012 with 113 dead calves (Rowntreeet al. 2013, Sironiet al.2018). The estimated age of dead calves ranged from 1 d to 4–6mo(Rowntreeet al. 2013, McAlooseet al. 2016). Fil: Sironi, Mariano Miguel. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Cs.exactas Físicas y Naturales. Departamento de Diversidad Biológica y Ecológica. Cátedra de Biología del Comportam. y Div. Animal Ii; Argentina. Instituto de Conservacion de Ballenas; Argentina Fil: Marón, Carina Flavia. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Cs.exactas Físicas y Naturales. Departamento de Diversidad Biológica y Ecológica. Cátedra de Biología del Comportam. y Div. Animal Ii; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Petitte, Luis. Southern Spirit Whale Watch; Argentina Fil: Guevara, Justa. Southern Spirit Whale Watch; Argentina Fil: Martorel, Juan Pablo. Southern Spirit Whale Watch; Argentina Fil: Rowntree, Victoria J.. University Of Utah. Department Of Biology; Estados Unidos

Seasonal trends in the distribution and relative abundance of southern right whales (SRWs) Eubalaena australis, were assessed in Australia's largest calving aggregation ground at the Head of the Great Australian Bight, in the Commonwealth Marine Reserve, South Australia. Annual cliff‐based surveys were undertaken between June and October from 1992 to 2016. SRWs were primarily distributed in a 15 km by 2 km area within the 10 m depth contour (with 95% of whale sightings made within a 10 km² area). The distribution of SRWs at Head of Bight varied within an individual season but was consistent among the years. The composition of SRW sightings was 70% female–calf pairs and 30% unaccompanied whales. Peak abundance occurred between mid‐July and end‐August for female–calf pairs and unaccompanied whales (juveniles or adults not accompanied by a calf), earlier than previously reported. A mean of 16% (range 8–28%, SD = 6.5, 95% CI = 0.15) of calving females were present at the site in mid‐June and a mean of 37% (range 13–61%, SD = 15.8, 95% CI = 0.37) remained at the site at the end of September. Based on nearest‐neighbour distances of 150 m, the area occupied by 95% of SRWs at Head of Bight could reach carrying capacity at 68 female and calf pairs. Results suggest that the primary aggregation area at Head of Bight may have reached saturation capacity and that habitat expansion can be expected as the population increases. This study provides information on SRW seasonal trends in distribution and abundance, timing of arrival and departure from the site and peak abundance periods relevant to application to conservation and marine park management. As management requirements increase with a growing population, there is a need to complete an Australia‐wide assessment of SRW connectivity and habitat expansion.

Fil: Crespo, Enrique Alberto. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas. Centro Cientifico Tecnologico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagonico. Centro para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos; Argentina

The recognized calving grounds of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) that breed along the Western Australian coast (Breeding Stock D) extend along the Kimberley coast between Camden Sound and Broome (15°–18°S). However, there are reports of neonates further south, suggesting that the calving areas may be poorly defined. During aerial photogrammetric research in 2013 and 2015, we sighted large numbers of humpback whale calves along North West Cape (21°47′–22°43′S). We estimated the minimum relative calf abundance to be 463–603 in 2013 and 557–725 in 2015. We categorized the calves as either neonate or post neonate according to their color and size. The majority of calves sighted in both years (85% in 2013; 94% in 2015) were neonates. Our observations indicate that a minimum of approximately 20% (17.1%–24.3%) of the expected number of calves of this population are born near, or south of, North West Cape. We thus demonstrate that the calving grounds for the Breeding Stock D population extend south from Camden Sound in the Kimberley (15°S) to at least North West Cape (22°43′S), 1,000 km southwest of the currently recognized calving area.

Many baleen whales were commercially harvested during the 20th century almost to extinction. Reliable assessments of how this mass depletion impacted whale populations, and projections of their recovery, are crucial but there are uncertainties regarding the status of Southern Hemisphere whale populations. We developed a Southern Hemisphere spatial "Model of Intermediate Complexity for Ecosystem Assessments" (MICE) for phytoplankton, krill (Euphausia superba) and five baleen whale species, to estimate whale population trajectories from 1890 to present. To forward project to 2100, we couple the predator-prey model to a global climate model. We used the most up to date catch records, fitted to survey data and accounted for key uncertainties. We predict Antarctic blue (Balaenoptera musculus intermedia), fin (Balaenoptera physalus) and southern right (Eubalaena australis) whales will be at less than half their pre-exploitation numbers (K) even given 100 years of future protection from whaling, because of slow growth rates. Some species have benefited greatly from cessation of harvesting, particularly humpbacks (Megaptera novaeangliae), currently at 32% of K, with full recovery predicted by 2050. We highlight spatial differences in the recovery of whale species between oceanic areas, with current estimates of Atlantic/Indian area blue (1,890

Historical catch records from whaling activity are crucial for assessments of whale populations. However, several gaps in the exploitation history for many populations from before the twentieth century create limitations that may lead to overestimates of the recovery of these populations. The history of modern whaling along the Brazilian coast is relatively well known. However, several questions relating to the pre-modern period, during and before the nineteenth century, remain unanswered. For example, the level of exploitation of humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae and southern right whales Eubalaena australis in this period is unknown. Pre-modern whaling in Brazil began in 1602 and lasted until the 1920s. Whales were captured using manual harpoons from either rowing boats or sailing boats, and processed at land stations called ‘armacoes’. A review of the history and oil production of these stations indicates that substantial catches occurred. Pre-modern whaling records also indicate the collapse of the southern right whale population in the western South Atlantic Ocean. Increasingly rare reports of sightings for the nineteenth century and the closing of the last armacao in the breeding grounds off southern Brazil indicate that this population collapsed by 1830. Armacoes operating in north-eastern Brazil remained active through the 1800s, and targeted humpback whales until modern whaling techniques were introduced in the early 1900s. It is estimated that between approximately 11000 and 32000 individuals of this species were captured at these coastal whaling stations from 1830 to 1924.

Peninsula Valdes (PV) in Argentina is an important calving ground for southern right whales (SRWs, Eubalaena australis). Since 2005, right whale mortality has increased at PV, with most of the deaths (~90%) being calves

The subtropical and temperate coastal waters of the western South Atlantic are an important calving ground for southern right whales, Eubalaena australis .F rom 2002 to 2008, data on right whale distribution and habitat characteristics were collected in 14 bays along the coastline of Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Generalized linear models with a negative binomial error distribution were used to determine which environmental (beach morphotype, bay mouth width, bay inclination angle, northsouth and east-west wind components), and temporal (month and year) variables best explained the aggregation pattern of individuals. Our results suggested that both cow-calf pairs and adults unaccompanied by calves prefer bays with dissipative beaches, and that cow-calf pairs apparently avoid bays facing southeast during days of strong east-west winds. The number of sightings peaked in September and tended to increase over the study period. One particular embayment (Ribanceira beach) had considerably higher numbers of animals and may be considered a preferred spot in this calving ground. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the species’ habitat use and ecological requirements and should be taken into account if new management measures are implemented to further increase protection of southern right whales in the region.

Benguela Environment Fisheries Interaction & Training Programme (BENEFIT), Namibian Coast Conservation and Management Project (NACOMA), and The Namibia Nature Foundation (NNF).Department of Industries (and its successors), Department of Transport (through the SA National Antarctic Programme), South African Marine Corporation, World Wide Fund for Nature (SA), The Green Trust, Moby Dick Rum, Exclusive Touch, International Whaling Commission, the Island Foundation, and National Research Foundation.

Whale bone was used by Māori throughout New Zealand prehistory as an industrial resource for the manufacture of a range of artefacts. However, the selection of bone and the methods used to process it are poorly understood. This paper details the analysis of a southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) bone working floor that was excavated from a fifteenth-century coastal fishing camp at Kahukura, on the southeast coast of New Zealand. The whale bone working floor assemblage, comprising a large quantity of debitage fragments, was used to reconstruct reduction methods and to determine the products being made at the site. Rib bones were the main element being worked, and were reduced longitudinally using a chipping technique. The intensive bone working assemblage at Kahukura represents the by-products from primary processing. This stage focused on reducing the bones into workable portions so that they could be easily transported to another location, where they were likely further reduced into artefacts. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Aim To develop and validate a model for fine-scale distribution of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) on their calving grounds, accounting for breeding status. Location Port Ross, a harbour at the northern end of the sub-Antarctic Auckland Islands, approximately 450 km south of mainland New Zealand. Methods Species–habitat surveys were conducted during annual winter expeditions to the Auckland Islands from 2010 to 2012. Presence locations for groups including calves (calf groups; n = 462) and not including calves (noncalf groups; n = 313) were recorded during small-boat surveys of Port Ross, and an equal number of pseudo-absence locations were generated in a GIS analysis. Explanatory variables tested were water depth, seabed slope, distance to coast, distance to shelter from prevailing wind and average wave exposure (estimated from a custom-built wave model). The occurrence of calf groups and non-calf groups was separately related to explanatory variables using binomial generalized additive models, with best models chosen via the minimum Akaike information criterion score. Multi-fold validation was conducted to assess model performance and temporal variation in distribution. Results The best models for calf groups were consistent, always including wave exposure, distance to shelter, depth and distance to the coastline. In contrast, the best non-calf group models were more variable and explained only a small proportion of the variation in the data. Validation metrics indicated that the calf group models were useful predictors of distribution in Port Ross during winter, and that the calf group models performed better than the non-calf models using the same suite of environmental variables. Main conclusions Breeding female southern right whales seek sheltered, nearshore waters during the early life-stages of their calves and are more selective of these habitats than non-calving whales. The results highlight the importance of sheltered habitat for taxa with vulnerable life-history stages, and the need to account for reproductive status to refine species–habitat models.

U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Naval Research and gifts from donors to the Oregon State University Marine Mammal Program.

KEVIN D. KOHL, Department of Biology, University of Utah, 257 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, U.S.A.; CARINA F. MAR ON, Department of Biology, University of Utah, 257 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, U.S.A. and Instituto de Conservaci on de Ballenas, CC 39, Buenos Aires, 1623, Argentina; ANDREA CHIRIFE and MAT IAS DI MARTINO, Southern Right Whale Health Monitoring Program, Los Alerces 3376, Puerto Madryn, 9120, Chubut, Argentina; M. DENISE DEARING, Department of Biology, University of Utah, 257 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, U.S.A.; VICTORIA J. ROWNTREE, Department of Biology, University of Utah, 257 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, U.S.A. and Whale Conservation Institute/Ocean Alliance, Gloucester, Massachusetts 01930, U.S.A.

Skeletal remains of baleen whales killed during the onset of 20th century commercial whaling lie scattered across the shores and abandoned whaling stations of the subantarctic island of South Georgia. Here we report on genetic species identification of whale bones collected from South Georgia using standard historical DNA protocols. We amplified and sequenced short fragments of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region from 281 available bone samples. Of these, 231 provided mtDNA sequences of sufficient quality and length (174–194 bp) for species identification: 158 bones were identified as humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), 51 bones were identified as fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), 18 bones were identified as blue whale (B. musculus), two bones were identified as sei whale (B. borealis), one bone was identified as a southern right whale (Eubalaena australis), and one bone was identified as a southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina). The prominence of humpback, fin, and blue whale bones in the sample collection corresponds to the catch record of the early years of whaling on the island of South Georgia (pre-1915), prior to the depletion of these populations.

The southern right whale’s (Eubalaena australis) demography, occurrence, habitat use, and behavior off South Africa are known predominantly from an ongoing aerial survey data set that started in 1971. The fixed timeframes of these surveys and their geographical bias towards south coast nursery areas have constrained our knowledge about the right whale’s seasonal distribution elsewhere. We present shore-based observations and tracking of right whales at Saldanha Bay on the west coast (2001– 2003) that reveal a near year-round presence and strongly nearshore distribution. With seasonal progression from winter to summer we observed a gradual increase in sighting rate, reduction in swimming speed, less directionality of movement, an increase in group size, and more surface active groups. The area appears to be important for feeding and socializing but not as a calving or nursery area. Individual transits between the south and west coasts, bidirectional alongshore movements, and extended seasonal presence may all be indicative of reoccupation of their former range along the west coast. This is important given the increasing ship traffic at Saldanha Bay, the rapid expansion of the region’s oil and gas industry, and the known vulnerability of the closely related North Atlantic right whale (E. glacialis )t o ship strikes.

Historically, the range of the southern right whale (SRW) included winter calving grounds around the North and South Islands (mainland) of New Zealand (NZ) and in the NZ subantarctic Auckland and Campbell Islands. Due to extensive whaling in the 19th and 20th centuries, no SRW was seen around mainland NZ for nearly four decades (1928–1963). Here we present evidence for the regular use of the mainland NZ wintering ground, presumably from a remnant population that persisted in the NZ subantarctic Auckland and Campbell Islands. SRWs have been sighted every year around mainland NZ since 1988, with 125 sightings during the focus of this work: from 2003 to 2010. There were 28 cow-calf pairs sighted around mainland NZ from 2003 to 2010, compared with 11 sightings from 1991 to 2002. Furthermore, two females, identified by DNA profiles, were sighted with calves around mainland at 4 yr intervals: the first evidence of female site fidelity to the mainland NZ calving ground. Individual identification from photographs of natural markings and DNA profiles provided information on within-year movements and residency around the mainland, and further evidence for exchange between the mainland and subantarctic wintering grounds. Despite these promising signs, the distribution of NZ SRWs remains primarily concentrated in the NZ subantarctic.

Península Valdés (PV) in Argentina is an important calving ground for southern right whales (SRWs, Eubalaena australis). Since 2005, right whale mortality has increased at PV, with most of the deaths (~90%) being calves

Guidelines for sustainable tourism involving swimming with large whales are not well-developed compared to those focused on programs of swimming with delphinids. From September to November 2005 and August to September 2006, we collected behavioral and movement data for southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) exposed to interactions with boats and swimmers at Peninsula Valdes, Argentina. Whales were tracked from shore using a theodolite before, during, and after a series of directed interactions with swimmers and a boat. Resting, socializing, and surface active behavior decreased, traveling increased, and whales swam faster and reoriented more often during interactions. Responses were variable by age/sex class, with mother/calf pairs showing strongest responses. Increased levels of tourism activity are a concern, as reduction in resting time and disruption of socialization among adults, juveniles, and mother/calf pairs have unknown long-term consequences. Additional data should be collected for whale behavior in proposed tourism and nontourism areas to build a long-term database which can be used to determine if reactions of whales change over time. Our data suggest that swimming with whales in Chubut Province should not be legalized until further investigations are completed, especially in light of the recent southern right whale die-offs recorded in Peninsula Valdes.

The identification and characterization of reproductively isolated subpopulations or ‘stocks’ are essential for effective conservation and management decisions. This can be difficult in vagile marine species like marine mammals. We used paternity assignment and ‘gametic recapture’ to examine the reproductive autonomy of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) on their New Zealand (NZ) calving grounds. We derived DNA profiles for 34 mother–calf pairs from skin biopsy samples, using sex-specific markers, 13 microsatellite loci and mtDNA haplotypes. We constructed DNA profiles for 314 adult males, representing 30% of the census male abundance of the NZ stock, previously estimated from genotypic mark-recapture modelling to be 1085 (95% CL 855, 1416). Under the hypothesis of demographic closure and the assumption of equal reproductive success among males, we predict: (i) the proportion of paternities assigned will reflect the proportion of the male population sampled and (ii) the gametic mark–recapture (GMR) estimate of male abundance will be equivalent to the census male estimate for the NZ stock. Consistent with these predictions, we found that the proportion of assigned paternities equalled the proportion of the census male population size sampled. Using the sample of males as the initial capture, and paternity assignment as the recapture, the GMR estimate of male abundance was 1001 (95% CL 542, 1469), similar to the male census estimate. These findings suggest that right whales returning to the NZ calving ground are reproductively autonomous on a generational timescale, as well as isolated by maternal fidelity on an evolutionary timescale, from others in the Indo-Pacific region.

Recently, there has been a growing interest in the anatomy and optics of the visual system of cetaceans. However, much of the new information has been focused on odontocetes, and relatively little is known about the visual anatomy of baleen whales. The aim of this study was describe the eye anatomy of the southern right whale (Eubalaena australis). Eye samples were collected from 26 calves, four adults with known body length, as well as two specimens of unknown body length that had stranded near their nursery ground at Peninsula Valdes, Argentina, over 6 years. We provide anatomical descriptions of the eyeball and extraocular structures, as well as quantitative data in the form of eyeball, corneal, scleral, and lens measurements. To explore the sensitivity of the eye to light, the f-number was estimated in one specimen. We found that the eyes of the calves differed from those of the adults in having less periorbital fat surrounding the eyeball. We also observed variations in the abundance of periorbital fat among the adult specimens. The regression analysis revealed a correlation between body length and eyeball size. By contrast, the dimensions of the cornea were only weakly correlated with body length. The estimated f-number suggests that the optical sensitivity of the Eubalaena australis eye is relatively low. However, caution had to be taken in interpreting f-number as a proxy of eye sensitivity because it depends on the lens size, which can be affected by the fixation methods used. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

P. B. B. acknowledges the support of the National Research Foundation of South Africa (GUN number 2047517). B. R. M. acknowledges the support of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration through the Northeast Consortium, based at the University of New Hampshire (Grant #NA16FL1324), the U.S. Office of Naval Research, and donors to the Oregon State University Endowed Marine Mammal Program.

Southern right whales—Eubalaena australis (Desmoulins, 1822)—migrate seasonally from high‐latitude feeding grounds to coastal breeding and calving grounds at lower latitudes such as the southern coast of Brazil. Understanding how these whales are distributed along the coast is important for monitoring their postwhaling recovery and defining management strategies. In this study, we applied Kernel density estimators to aerial survey data to determine main occurrence and concentration areas of right whales in southern Brazil and investigate inter‐ and intra‐annual distribution patterns between 2003 and 2012. Our results show considerable variation in area usage within and among years, and changes in the general distribution pattern of right whales in the last years of the study. Intra‐annually, higher concentration area tended to expand from July to September and decrease in November. Some areas stood out as high‐density areas for right whales: Ribanceira/Ibiraquera, Itapiruba Sul/Sol, and from Arroio to Gaivota. Some evidences also suggest preferential areas for mother–calf pairs. The higher concentration area of right whales in southern Brazil was estimated at 52,541 km² and the occurrence area was 682.69 km², which is the whole study area. As right whale distribution in the region is likely expanding due to this population's current recovery, our study provides essential information for management plan of the Right Whale Environmental Protection Area.

Few birds parasitize living tissue of other birds or mammals. At Golfo San Jose, Argentina, kelp gulls, Larus domincanus, fed on live southern right whale, Eubalaena australis, mothers, landing on their backs and pecking at peeling skin or gouging into the energy-rich hypodermal blubber layer. Most attacks occurred while mothers were resting at the surface in the central nursery area. The typical immediate reaction of mothers to gull attacks was to lower the mid-back and rapidly raise the head and tail stock. Less frequently mothers submerged quickly. After their initial response mothers traveled rapidly, usually underwater, or adopted resting postures that submerged the vulnerable midback area. Gulls attacked singly or in small groups and alternated between following a single pair of whales and attacking several pairs sequentially. The intensity of maternal responses to these attacks affects the energy budget of mothers and calves during a time when energy conservation is important. Subtle postural shifts to submerge the back require less energy than rapid, frantic fleeing. Since gulls feed on whales without causing fatal injury this relationship is termed parasitic.

Ocean warming will undoubtedly affect the migratory patterns of many marine species, but specific changes can be predicted only where behavioural mechanisms guiding migration are understood. Southern right whales show maternally inherited site fidelity to near-shore winter nursery grounds, but exactly where they feed in summer (collectively and individually) remains mysterious. They consume huge quantities of copepods and krill, and their reproductive rates respond to fluctuations in krill abundance linked to El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Here we show that genetic and isotopic signatures, analysed together, indicate maternally directed site fidelity to diverse summer feeding grounds for female right whales calving at Peninsula Valdes, Argentina. Isotopic values from 131 skin samples span a broad range (–23.1 to –17.2‰ δ 13 C, 6.0 to 13.8‰ δ 15 N) and are more similar than expected among individuals sharing the same mitochondrial haplotype. This pattern indicates that calves learn summer feeding locations from their mothers, and that the timescale of culturally inherited site fidelity to feeding grounds is at least several generations. Such conservatism would be expected to limit the exploration of new feeding opportunities, and may explain why this population shows increased rates of reproductive failure in years following elevated sea-surface temperature anomalies off South Georgia, the richest known feeding ground for baleen whales in the South Atlantic.

Commercial exploitation reduced the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) population from c. 12 000 in the 11th century to around 300 by the 21st century. We examine the effect of this population decline on levels of genetic variation at 16 microsatellite loci and contrast levels of variability to that in a closely related species (E. australis). Of the 13 loci developed from the E. glacialis genome, 100% were polymorphic in E. australis. In contrast, nine loci were polymorphic in E. glacialis and four were fixed. Both allelic diversity (A) and heterozygosity (H) were significantly lower in E. glacialis than E. australis (A = 3.2 ± 2.6 vs. A= 6.9 ± 3.3, P

Skin (integument) anatomy reflects adaptations to particular environments. It is hypothesized that cetacean (whale) integument will show unique anatomical adaptations to an aquatic environment, particularly regarding differences in temperature, density, and pressure. In this study, the gross and histological structure of the southern right whale integument is described and compared with terrestrial mammals and previous descriptions of mysticete (baleen whale) and odontocete (toothed whale) species. Samples were taken of the integument of 98 free-swimming southern right whales, Eubalaena australis, and examined by both light and electron microscopy. Results show that three epidermal layers are present, with the stratum corneum being parakeratotic in nature. As in bowhead whales, southern right whales possess an acanthotic epidermis and a notably thick hypodermis, with epidermal rods and extensive papillomatosis. However, unlike bowhead whales, southern right whales possess an uninterrupted hypodermal layer. Surprisingly, the integument of balaenids (right and bowhead mysticetes) in general is more like that of odontocetes than that of the more closely related balaenopterids (rorqual mysticetes). Similarities to odontocetes were found specifically in the collagen fibers in a fat-free zone of the reticular dermal layer and the elastic fibers in the dermal and hypodermal layers. Callosities, a distinctive feature of this genus, have a slightly thicker stratum corneum and are usually associated with hairs that have innervated and vascularized follicles. These hairs may function as vibrissae, thus aiding in aquatic foraging by allowing rapid detection of changes in prey density. Although the thick insulatory integument makes right whales bulky and slow-moving, it is an adaptation for living in cold water. Epidermal thickness, presence of epidermal rods, and callosities may act as barriers against mechanical injury from bodily contact with conspecifics or hard surfaces in the environment (e.g., rocks, ice).

A North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) genomic library was developed and screened with a (GATA)8 probe to identify tetranucleotide microsatellite loci. Sixteen characterized loci were polymorphic in North Atlantic and/or South Atlantic (Eubalaena australis) right whales, 12 being polymorphic in E. glacialis, and 15 in E. australis. Fourteen of these were combined with 21 other previously identified loci for a suite of 35 loci which can be used to increase resolution of genetic analyses of these species. Multiplex reactions were developed for genotyping samples at these loci, providing a method that is rapid, reliable and cost-effective.

Right whales carry large populations of three ‘whale lice’ ( Cyamus ovalis , Cyamus gracilis , Cyamus erraticus ) that have no other hosts. We used sequence variation in the mitochondrial COI gene to ask (i) whether cyamid population structures might reveal associations among right whale individuals and subpopulations, (ii) whether the divergences of the three nominally conspecific cyamid species on North Atlantic, North Pacific, and southern right whales ( Eubalaena glacialis, Eubalaena japonica, Eubalaena australis ) might indicate their times of separation, and (iii) whether the shapes of cyamid gene trees might contain information about changes in the population sizes of right whales. We found high levels of nucleotide diversity but almost no population structure within oceans, indicating large effective population sizes and high rates of transfer between whales and subpopulations. North Atlantic and Southern Ocean populations of all three species are reciprocally monophyletic, and North Pacific C. erraticus is well separated from North Atlantic and southern C. erraticus . Mitochondrial clock calibrations suggest that these divergences occurred around 6 million years ago (Ma), and that the Eubalaena mitochondrial clock is very slow. North Pacific C. ovalis forms a clade inside the southern C. ovalis gene tree, implying that at least one right whale has crossed the equator in the Pacific Ocean within the last 1–2 million years (Myr). Low-frequency polymorphisms are more common than expected under neutrality for populations of constant size, but there is no obvious signal of rapid, interspecifically congruent expansion of the kind that would be expected if North Atlantic or southern right whales had experienced a prolonged population bottleneck within the last 0.5 Myr.

Environmental factors are thought to strongly influence the distribution and predictability of the coastal distribution of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) off South Africa. Preferred habitat had generally shallow sloping sedimentary floors and was characteristically protected from open ocean swell and prevalent seasonal winds. This study investigated whether habitat choices at smaller scales (within bays) were similar. Fine scale distribution patterns (GPS) from three years’ surveys (1997, 1999, 2000) were analyzed separately within the three main concentration areas St Sebastian Bay, De Hoop, and Walker Bay (containing -73% of cow-calf pairs and -49% of unaccompanied adults in the whole survey region). Whale density at this scale of within particular bays did not correlate well with predicted variables, but Chi-squared analysis strongly supported results at broader scales, in all bays. Post-hoc “choice” tests between similar areas differing in only one variable revealed that cow-calves preferred (presumed) sandy substrates and especially protection from swell. The strength and predictability of preferences shown at fine scale (where individual movement and weather variability could have great influence) provide strong support for findings at larger scales and emphasize the importance of environmental factors in the habitat choice of wintering right whales.

Aerial surveys over the last 32 yr have shown that the distribution of southern right whales Eubalaena australis along the south coast of South Africa is markedly discontinuous, but highly predictable. A GIS was used at a variety of scales to investigate whether this pattern was related to environmental characteristics. Whale distribution was analyzed as density per 20-min bin of longitude over two temporal and spatial scales, namely 15 bins for 32 yr, and a wider scale but shorter time period, 23 bins for 19 yr, as well as using three years of GPS accuracy data (15 bins) for finer scale analysis. Environmental factors tested were depth, distance from shore, sea floor slope, protection from swell, protection from wind, and shore type. The majority of whales were concentrated in areas that provided reasonable protection from open ocean swell and seasonal winds, and had sedimentary floors with gentle slopes. They generally avoided exposed rocky shorelines. Cow-calf pairs were found significantly closer to shore and in shallower water than unaccompanied whales, particularly off sandy beaches. Habitat choice at this time of year may be related both to energy conservation for calves and lactating females (calm sea conditions) and to protection of the new-born.

The surface active group (SAG) is the most obvious social interaction of the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis). SAGs are typically composed of an adult female with two or more males engaged in social behavior near the surface. Distinct calls, believed to be produced by the female, are associated with these groups. Calls recorded from three North Atlantic right whale SAGs and three South Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena australis) SAGs were played back to North Atlantic right whales to determine if these sounds are sufficient to attract males to the groups. Playbacks of gunshot sounds produced by North Atlantic right whales were used as a control stimulus. Thirty-six trials were carried out from 1999 to 2001 in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. Whales approached 27 of 31 SAG playbacks and 0 of 5 gunshot playbacks. Where sex was determined (n = 28), all approaches to North Atlantic SAG recordings were by males. Individuals (n = 22) of all age and sex classes approached South Atlantic SAG playbacks. These trials indicate that SAG calls from both populations are sufficient to attract right whales to SAGs and that males and females respond differently to stimuli from the North Atlantic. The difference in response to North and South Atlantic SAG stimuli was unexpected. Novelty, species differences in calls, and different seasonal or behavioral context for the recorded stimuli may be responsible for the differences in response.

The nasal region of the skull has undergone dramatic changes during the course of cetacean evolution. In particular, mysticetes (baleen whales) conserve the nasal mammalian pattern associated with the secondary function of olfaction, and lack the sound-producing specializations present in odontocetes (toothed whales, dolphins and porpoises). To improve our understanding of the morphology of the nasal region of mysticetes, we investigate the nasal anatomy, osteology and myology of the southern right whale, Eubalaena australis, and make comparisons with other mysticetes. In E. australis external deflection surfaces around the blowholes appear to divert water off the head, and differ in appearance from those observed in balaenopterids, eschrichtiids and cetotherids. In E. australis the blowholes are placed above hypertrophied nasal soft tissues formed by fat and nasal muscles, a pattern also observed in balaenopterids (rorqual mysticetes) and a cetotherid (pygmy right whale, Caperea marginata). Blowhole movements are due to the action of five nasofacial muscles: dilator naris superficialis, dilator naris profundus, depressor alae nasi, constrictor naris, and retractor alae nasi. The dilator naris profundus found in E. australis has not been previously reported in balaenopterids. The other nasofacial muscles have a similar arrangement in balaenopterids, with minor differences. A novel structure, not reported previously in any mysticete, is the presence of a vascular tissue (rete mirabile) covering the lower nasal passage. This vascular tissue could play a role in warming inspired air, or may engorge to accommodate loss of respiratory space volume due to gas compression from increased pressure during diving. Fil: Buono, Mónica Romina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Fernandez, Marta Susana. Universidad Nacional de la Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo. División Paleontología Vertebrados; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Fordyce, Ewan. University Of Otago; Nueva Zelanda Fil: Reidenberg, Joy S.. Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai; Estados Unidos

DNA sequences of the mitochondrial control region of 180 North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) and 16 South Atlantic right whales (E. australis) have been determined using a combination of direct DNA sequencing and single stranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis. Five haplotypes were found in E. glacialis, and 10 in E. australis, but none were shared, supporting the reproductive isolation and separate species status of the North and South Atlantic right whales. One haplotype in E. glacialis was found in only three males born before 1982 and this matriline will likely be lost soon. The nucleotide diversity estimates for the five North Atlantic right whale haplotypes was 0.6% and 2.0% for the 10 haplotypes found in the South Atlantic right whales. The average haplotypic diversity was 0.87 in E. glacialis and 0.96 in E. australis, which is consistent with other studies showing a lower level of genetic variation in the North Atlantic right whale. Phylogenetic analysis identified two major assemblages of haplotypes in E. australis from the samples collected from Peninsula Valdes, suggesting a mixing of two historically divergent populations. Using genetic distance measurements with a divergence rate of 0.5%-1.0%/myr, we estimate E. glacialis diverged from E. australis 3-12.5 mya.

Most species of baleen whales were subject to intensive overexploitation by commercial whaling in this and previous centuries, and many populations were reduced to small fractions of their original sizes. Here, we review the status of baleen whale stocks, with an emphasis on those that are known or thought to be critically endangered. Current data suggest that, of the various threats potentially affecting baleen whales, only entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes may be significant at the population level, and then only in those populations which are already at critically low abundance. The impact of some problems (vessel harassment, and commercial or aboriginal whaling) is at present probably minor. For others (contaminants, habitat degradation, disease), existing data either indicate no immediate cause for concern, or are insufficient to permit an assessment. While the prospect for many baleen whales appears good, there are notable exceptions; populations that are of greatest concern are those suffering from low abundance and associated problems, including (in some cases) anthropogenic mortality. These include: all Northern Right Whales Eubalaena glacialis, Bowhead Whales Balaena mysticetus of the Okhotsk Sea and various eastern Arctic populations, western Gray Whales Eschrichtius robustus, and probably many Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus populations. We review the status of these populations and, where known, the issues potentially affecting their recovery. Although Humpback Whales Megaptera novaeangliae and Southern Right Whales Eubalaena australis were also heavily exploited by whaling, existing data indicate strong recovery in most studied populations of these species.

Cow-calf pairs of southern right whales on the South African coast have been photographed in aerial surveys in October each year since 1979. In this paper 469 resightings of 177 individually identified cows photographed in the first six years of surveys have been analyzed in two ways to produce estimates of natural mortality rate. Both methods assume that all females calve either two, three, or four years after their previous calf. In Method A there is assumed to be no systematic trend with time in the probability of a female being photographed on each calving occasion. Natural logarithms of the numbers photographed 2-4, 5-7, 8-10, etc. yr after being first seen are regressed against time, the slope of which provides an estimate of natural mortality rate of 0.0255 ± 0.0071. The intercept value for this regression provides an estimate of the detection probability, or 0.769 ± 0.011. In Method B it is assumed that if a female has not been photographed for at least nine years then it is dead. Annual mortality estimates are obtained from the proportional reduction in the numbers of females known to be alive at each three-year interval after being first photographed, up to at least 6-8 yr from the present. Method B produces an estimate of natural mortality of 0.0260 ± 0.0190 (corrected to 0.0227 ± 0.0192 using the average detection probability). Both methods may be subject to various biases that tend to inflate estimates of natural mortality.

Kelp gulls at Peninsula Valdes, Argentina, have recently developed the habit of feeding on pieces of skin and blubber that they gouge from the backs of southern right whales. In response, the whales flinch violently, submerge, and swim rapidly away underwater. The level of harassment in 1995 was almost five times higher than when first studied in 1984 by Thomas (1988). In 1995, 67% of attacks were aimed at large white lesions on the whales' backs. The proportion of whales with lesions increased from 0.01 in 1974 to 0.32 in 1990. Mother-calf pairs that were attacked traveled at medium and fast speeds for 3.1 h per day, compared to 0.8 h for undisturbed pairs. Mother-calf pairs are estimated to spend approximately 24% of their daylight hours in states of gullinduced disturbance. Little food is available at Peninsula Valdes, so mothers must rely on blubber reserves to support their calves' growth, behavioral development, and migration to the feeding grounds. Even when undisturbed by gulls, mothers often curtail their calves' play and nursing bouts, suggesting that their energy reserves are limited. Increasingly intense harassment by gulls may therefore compromise calf development and might even induce right whales to abandon Peninsula Valdes for other calving grounds.

The duration and timing of coastal residence of individually identified southern right whales at a principal aggregation area on the southern Australian coast differed markedly between females with calves and unaccompanied whales. The mean residence period of females that calved within the aggregation area was 70.9 days, with mean residence mid-points of 20 August in 1993 and 22 August in 1994. In contrast, unaccompanied adults remained resident for an average of only 20.4 days with mean residence mid-points of 27 July and 11 August in 1993 and 1994, respectively. Whales have been sighted at this aggregation area from mid May to late October (approx. 160 days), although the effective calving season (95-100% of calves born) lasted only 88 days in 1993 and 96 days in 1994. The mean birth date based on first sighting with neonatal calf, and corrected for sightability bias, was 15 July in 1993 and 17 July in 1994, with 100% of calves born before 31 August 1993 and 23 September 1994. The time between birth and dispersal from the aggregation area, at or just prior to the commencement of the southward migration, was highly variable. Calves bom before the mean calving date averaged 80 days within the aggregation area, twice as long as those born after the mean (40 days). The large number of calves estimated to be less than 14 days old at first sighting, combined with the sighting of 26 pregnant females prior to parturition, suggests the majority of births occurred within, or very near to, the aggregation area.

From the seasonal occurrence of 11 stranded nconates, the earliest and latest observations of possible calving behaviour, and the seasonal incidence of calves in shore-based counts, the extent of the calving season for southern right whales off South Africa can be characterized as from late June to late October, with a peak in August. The occurrence of 89 ‘new’ calves located during monthly photogrammetric flights between July or August and November indicated that 50% were born by 1 September in 1988 and by 15 August in 1989, and that the effective calving season (in which 95.5% of calves are estimated to have been born) lasted 118 days in each year. From regression analysis of the lengths of 221 foetuses and their dates of death, and assuming a mean date of birth of 24 August, the duration of the linear phase of foetal growth is estimated to be 325 days, and the mean size at birth 6-1 m. Uncertainty over the duration of the initial, non-linear phase of foetal growth results in alternative estimates of 357 or 396 days for the total length of gestation. Foetuses of smaller females seem to be conceived later (or experience a longer initial, non-linear phase of foetal growth) than those of larger females. The apparent rarity of adult females in coastal waters in the year in which they are presumed to conceive is attributed to either a brief residence time or the possibility that conceptions may occur well outside coastal waters.

Movements of southern right whales between Gough Island and South Africa, and between Argentina and Tristan da Cunha, southern Brazil, and South Georgia are documented through matching of six photoidentified individuals. These include the resighting of a male in a mid-oceanic locality some 4,424 km away from (and 11 yr after) its last sighting in a coastal area where it had been seen in six of the preceding eight years, a female photographed in mid-Atlantic resighted with a calf in a coastal nursery area 2,769 km away, resightings of females with calves in different nursery areas 2,051 km apart in different years, and the first example of a link between a coastal nursery area and a feeding ground in high latitudes. The possible implications of these movements for estimates of calving interval and survival rate based on resightings in coastal waters are discussed. The potential for intermingling between populations on either side of the South Atlantic seems greater than was previously considered likely from a comparison of animals photographed in coastal waters.

Between July or August and November 1988 and 1989, 72 cow-calf pairs of right whales (Eubalaena australis) were measured photogrammetrically from the air off De Hoop, South Africa. Median coefficients of variation ranged from 1.29 to 4.56%, being lowest in cows and calves for measurements of total length. Fifty-seven adult cows measured from 12.37 to 15.54 m in length, with females photographed for the first time with a calf (= primiparous) being smaller than females that had been seen for the first time with a calf at least five years previously. The lengths of 72 calves ranged from 4.53 to 9.24 m, with those from primiparous females being significantly smaller than calves of multiparous females in every month except July. For 37 calves photographed on more than one occasion the growth rate averaged 2.8±0.7 cm per day, with no significant difference between growth rates of calves from primiparous and from other females, and no significant decrease in growth rate between July/September and September/November. Calves grew from an average of 40% of their mother's length in late July to 51% by mid-October. The size distribution of the adult females was no different from that of 25 adult females landed at South African whaling stations between 1911 and 1963 (after adjustment for possible differences in measurement techniques). Five near-term foetuses recovered in June-August in the same whaling operations also agree closely with the size of calves predicted for 1 August. In a comparison with 17 calves stranded or dying accidentally on the South African coast, most of the accidentally caught animals agreed closely in size with the sample of photogrammetrically measured animals, while most of the stranded animals were equal to or smaller in size than the smallest length interval in the photogrammetrically measured animals. The calves of primiparous females may therefore suffer a higher natural mortality rate than those of multiparous females.