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Edible mycorrhizal fungi (EMF) have been consumed since ancestral times by humans either as food, medicine or for ceremonial use Nowadays, they are a non‐timber forest product and a diverse genetic resource with great ecological, sociocultural, economic, medicinal and biotechnological relevance around the world Therefore, they have a paramount role to play in meeting the United Nations global sustainable development goals 2030 EMF may promote forest sustainability, biodiversity conservation, mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions through the maintenance of forest masses, human nutrition and health, economic development, conservation of biocultural heritages, women empowerment and hunger mitigation We provide a worldwide review of the knowledge, biodiversity, novel approaches, future challenges and perspectives in the post‐COVID era of this important genetic resource whose relevance has usually received marginal attention despite its strategic global significance Ectomycorrhizal fungi play a key role in the structure and functioning of forest ecosystems They have a paramount importance in nutrient cycling, plant protection against pathogens and abiotic stress, and establishment of underground networks that connect trees and other plants in nature, therefore being the wood wide web, the ‘internet’ of the forests According to our literature review, globally 970 mycorrhizal fungal species (including both mushrooms and truffles) are edible, and they have enormous relevance either as a source of subsistence in low‐income human groups around the world or as an important economic component whose international commerce is worth billions of American dollars annually Since edible mycorrhizal fungi (EMF) are a non‐timber forest product, their sustainable use and management is crucial in order to maintain forest stands and to provide well‐being to the human communities surrounding the forested areas where they grow In different parts of the world, different cultures have developed a traditional knowledge of EMF over millennia Their knowledge might play an important role in food supply and food security in the future, hence contributing towards the “zero hunger” global goal The biotechnological development of EMF has also been crucial in the establishment of plantations, or successful reforestation and ecosystem restoration, which contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing greenhouse gas emissions Here, a worldwide review of how EMF might contribute to forest sustainability, food supply, biocultural conservation, and hunger and climate change mitigation is addressed by analysing the similarities, contrasts and challenges in all five continents [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Plants, People, Planet is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use This abstract may be abridged No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract (Copyright applies to all Abstracts )

Summary The harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is a global phenomenon, the sustainability of which has been studied for many species at the individual and population level. However, the broader scale impacts of NTFP harvesting have been acknowledged but rarely examined. We assessed plant size and the soil attributes undercanopy and in the open, in replicate, paired harvested and non-harvested sites for three NTFPs differing in the extent of biomass removed, i.e. timber for firewood from a tree (Acacia karroo), fruits from a cactus (Opunita ficus-indica) and flowering culms from a grass (Cymbopogon marginatus). Soil variables tested included pH, resistivity, P, total N, nitrate nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, K, Na, Ca and Mg. The extent of loss of soil nutrients decreased across the three NTFPs relative to the proportion of biomass removed. Thus, significant differences in more soil variables were evident for the firewood species, least for the fruit species and intermediate for the grass species. Lower soil pH, P, C and K were evident in soils collected underneath A. karroo, while losses in cations of Na, Ca and Mg were reported in soils underneath C. marginatus, and only NO3N losses were recorded underneath O. ficus-indica. Synthesis and applications. Our study reveals that while non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting may affect soil nutrients, this is not uniform between species and is likely to be a function of the extent of biomass removed and harvesting frequency. This indicates the need for caution in generalisations about the ecosystem-level impacts of NTFP harvesting as well as a concerted effort to better understand impacts at a greater range of scales than has been the case to date.

Studies report different findings concerning the climate benefits of bioenergy, in part due to varying scope and use of different approaches to define spatial and temporal system boundaries. We quantify carbon balances for bioenergy systems that use biomass from forests managed with long rotations, employing different approaches and boundary conditions. Two approaches to represent landscapes and quantify their carbon balances - expanding vs. constant spatial boundaries - are compared. We show that for a conceptual forest landscape, constructed by combining a series of time-shifted forest stands, the two approaches sometimes yield different results. We argue that the approach that uses constant spatial boundaries is preferable because it captures all carbon flows in the landscape throughout the accounting period. The approach that uses expanding system boundaries fails to accurately describe the carbon fluxes in the landscape due to incomplete coverage of carbon flows and influence of the stand-level dynamics, which in turn arise from the way temporal system boundaries are defined on the stand level. Modelling of profit-driven forest management using location-specific forest data shows that the implications for carbon balance of management changes across the landscape ( which are partly neglected when expanding system boundaries are used) depend on many factors such as forest structure and forest owners' expectations of market development for bioenergy and other wood products. Assessments should not consider forest-based bioenergy in isolation but should ideally consider all forest products and how forest management planning as a whole is affected by bioenergy incentives - and how this in turn affects carbon balances in forest landscapes and forest product pools. Due to uncertainties, we modelled several alternative scenarios for forest products markets. We recommend that future work consider alternative scenarios for other critical factors, such as policy options and energy technology pathways.

Summary Non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvest is frequently accompanied by resource management practices that interact with the harvesting itself, other disturbances and abiotic conditions. These interactions, in turn, lead to diverse environmental effects. Few studies focus on these practices in the context of harvesting NTFPs, product properties and environmental impacts, including biological invasions. In Pine woodlands in Eastern Bhutan, Cymbopogon flexuosus East Indian Lemon Grass is harvested and distilled to obtain essential oil, an economically important NTFP. Prescribed fires are applied in late winter (before annual harvest in summer) to induce regeneration of new tillers with increased essential oil content. This practice is based on local ecological knowledge and renders the utilization of C. flexuosus economically viable. On two sites with contrasting stand structure, we evaluated the effects of different prescribed burning regimes (no burning vs. burning with two levels of frequency and intensity) on the sustainability of annually harvested C. flexuosus, regarding cover, biomass yield, essential oil yield and quality. At the same time, we evaluated the effects of prescribed burning on the spread of the invasive shrub Chromolaena odorata. Cymbopogon flexuosus biomass declined over time, likely as a result of harvesting. In more closed stands, it was moreover marginally negatively influenced by fire. We confirmed local ecological knowledge regarding significantly higher essential oil yield on burned plots, without differences between fire regimes. In open stands, fire led to rapid expansion of C. odorata, specifically with frequently applied, higher intensity fires. Additionally, the spread of C. odorata showed adverse effects on C. flexuosus cover. Synthesis and applications. Our results highlight the importance of studying the wider impacts of non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvest. We confirmed local ecological knowledge that fire increases lemon grass essential oil yield, making prescribed burning an attractive land management tool for farmers. Nevertheless, the practice of annual harvesting may lead to resource decline that may be exacerbated by fire in closed stands. Caution needs to be practiced on open sites where invasive C. odorata may spread rapidly after fires. Management needs to focus on preventing concentration of annual harvesting and associated prescribed burning in the same areas. Amending national forestry rules to legalize fire as a land management tool can support local economies and potentially prevent wildfires that regularly devastate human infrastructure across eastern Bhutan.

Forests are an increasingly important source of feedstock for bioenergy as global efforts to mitigate atmospheric CO2 concentrations increase. In keeping with the principles of sustainable forest management, it is important that feedstock procurement not have negative impacts on the environment, including biodiversity. Impacts of land use, including forest management, can be evaluated along all stages in the production of these goods and services, using life cycle assessment (LCA), which is a potentially powerful tool for organizing and evaluating the impacts of production. There is growing recognition of the need to integrate land-use impacts into LCA for forest products such as bioenergy, especially on biodiversity. Integrating quantitative indicators of biodiversity into LCAs of biomass production systems is particularly challenging because biodiversity is a multidimensional concept that can never be fully represented by a single number, and yet many proposed approaches rely on this. Reliance on a single metric oversimplifies ‘biodiversity’ and might lead to inappropriate conclusions on local land management practices. LCA is not suited to providing reliable site-specific assessment of forest product systems in regard to the complexities of biodiversity. Nevertheless, the global and comprehensive nature of LCA makes it a useful tool for preventing a shift in environmental problems or burdens across the value chain because of local land management decisions. In this context, complementary site-specific and/or regional studies or analyses may help mitigate against inaccurate conclusions being drawn from LCA. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:670–683. doi: 10.1002/wene.211 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Bioenergy from boreal forests managed for productive purposes (e.g., pulp, timber) is commonly held to offer attractive options for climate change mitigation. However, this view has been challenged in recent years. Carbon balances, cumulative radiative forcing, and average global temperature change have been calculated for a variety of bioenergy management regimes in Swedish forests and the results support the view that an increased use of forest biomass for energy in Sweden can contribute to climate change mitigation, although methodological (e.g. spatial scales) and parameter value choices influence the results significantly. We show that the climate effect of forest-based bioenergy depends on the forest ecosystems and management, including biomass extraction for bioenergy and other products, and how this management changes in response to anticipated market demands; and on the energy system effects, which determine the fossil carbon displacement and other greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation effects of using forest biomass for bioenergy and other purposes. The public and private sectors are advised to consider information from comprehensive analyses that provide insights about energy and forest systems in the context of evolving forest product markets, alternative policy options, and energy technology pathways in their decision-making processes.

Relying primarily on English language scholarship, this paper seeks to highlight the dynamics of China's economic integration beyond its borders as Chinese economic actors extend their search for commodities—in this case into the Russian Federation for timber products. The paper considers the shifts in the political economy of Russian forestry exports from a predominantly domestic and Japan-focused trade during the 1947–1991 Cold War era to a north–south trajectory increasingly emphasizing trade with China from 1993 to 2010. Chinese and Russian bilateral trade data, acting as a barometer of national forestry-related policies, highlight the economic convergence and benefits brought to both the Russian and Chinese timber sectors over the past two decades. Far from being an environmentally deterministic process—one based on the physical geographic characteristics on the ground in both of these states—this binational commodity trade shows that the geography of the Russia–China forest product trade is highly dynamic, temporally variable, and intimately intertwined with national political and economic considerations.

Large mammals are vulnerable to extinction, and respond directly to ecological gradients within the forest and to the intensity of forest product use by humans. In this study, we evaluated the effects of differences in forest structure and human occupation history on the composition of medium and large-sized mammal assemblages of the terra-firme forests of the Anavilhanas National Park, one of the most oligotrophic Amazonian ecosystems. Mammal surveys were conducted along 11 linear transects of 4 km, six of which were located in areas once inhabited by people and managed until the year that the park was created (over 30 years ago), and five in areas that were not inhabited at that time. We detected 469 individuals of 26 species during diurnal and nocturnal sampling, and 11 additional species outside transects. Human occupation history was strongly related to forest structure components. Fruit biomass, canopy cover and tree size were strongly associated with uninhabited areas, and influenced the structure of mammal assemblages. A direct relationship between diet category and species size was observed. Large frugivore-herbivores and carnivores were more closely associated with areas with more fruit, larger trees and greater canopy cover. In contrast, small arboreal frugivore-omnivores associated more closely with open canopy and smaller trees. Our study indicated that the effects of human occupation history on forest structure are still evident three decades after the removal of local people from the park. This long-term effect can be explained by the low resilience of the Anavilhanas environments, demonstrating the fragility of mammal assemblages in face of anthropogenic variation in forest structure in the oligotrophic ecosystems of the Negro River basin.

Forests of the Midwestern United States are an important source of fiber for the wood and paper products industries. Scientists, land managers, and policy makers are interested in using woody biomass and/or harvest residue for biofuel feedstocks. However, the effects of increased biomass removal for biofuel production on forest production and forest system carbon balance remain uncertain. We modeled the carbon (C) cycle of the forest system by dividing it into two distinct components: (1) biological (net ecosystem production, net primary production, autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration, vegetation, and soil C content) and (2) industrial (harvest operations and transportation, production, use, and disposal of major wood products including biofuel and associated C emissions). We modeled available woody biomass feedstock and whole-system carbon balance of 220 000 km2 of temperate forests in the Upper Midwest, USA by coupling an ecosystem process model to a collection of greenhouse gas life-cycle inventory models and simulating seven forest harvest scenarios in the biological ecosystem and three biofuel production scenarios in the industrial system for 50 years. The forest system was a carbon sink (118 g C m−2 yr−1) under current management practices and forest product production rates. However, the system became a C source when harvest area was doubled and biofuel production replaced traditional forest products. Total carbon stores in the vegetation and soil increased by 5–10% under low-intensity management scenarios and current management, but decreased up to 3% under high-intensity harvest regimes. Increasing harvest residue removal during harvest had more modest effects on forest system C balance and total biomass removal than increasing the rate of clear-cut harvests or area harvested. Net forest system C balance was significantly, and negatively correlated (R2 = 0.67) with biomass harvested, illustrating the trade-offs between increased C uptake by forests and utilization of woody biomass for biofuel feedstock.

(CLCA) energy demand forest economics industrial ecology partial equilibrium modeling Supplementary material is available on the JIE Web site Summary Consequential life cycle assessment (CLCA) has emerged as a tool for estimating environmental impacts of changes in product systems that go beyond physical relationships accounted for in attributional LCA (ALCA). This study builds on recent efforts to use more complex economic models for policy-based CLCA. A partial market equilibrium (PME) model, called the U.S. Forest Products Module (USFPM), is combined with LCA to analyze an energy demand scenario in which wood use increases 400 million cubic meters in the United States for ethanol production. Several types of indirect economic and environmental impacts are identified and estimated using USFPM-LCA. A key finding is that if wood use for biofuels increases to high levels and mill residue is used for biofuels and replaced by natural gas for heat and power in forest products mills, then the increased greenhouse gas emissions from natural gas could offset reductions obtained by substituting biofuels for gasoline. Such high levels of biofuel demand, however, appear to have relatively low environmental impacts across related forest product sectors.

It is estimated that 87 million acres of forestland in the United States (US) is managed by private industrial forestland owners (nearly 14% of the forestland nationwide). Private industrial forestland owners include forest product companies, Timber Investment Management Organizations (TIMOs) and Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs). Current regulatory and voluntary carbon markets, as well as proposed national emission reduction legislation, in the US make provisions for substantial carbon offsets from domestic forestry projects. This research employs the theory of planned behavior by means of an online questionnaire in order to survey large industrial forestland owners (>30 000 acres) regarding intentions to manage forestland for carbon sequestration and trading. Quantitative results suggest that very few organizations (18%) were managing forestland for carbon values. Attitudes towards carbon sequestration and trading were significantly influenced by the managers' beliefs that emission reduction legislation would become law and that US forest carbon offsets can be used as a legitimate climate change mitigation tool. Qualitative results revealed that most organizations are taking a passive approach to carbon sequestration and trading until a suitable regulatory framework emerges and carbon prices provide the conditions for a sound investment. The researchers suggest that, given the size and scope of the climate change phenomenon as well as the multifaceted and unified mitigation strategy required to address it, the development of functional carbon markets will be an iterative process and may require a global carbon framework that reflects the globalized nature of the forest economy. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment

For many Western corporations, Japan poses formidable barriers to export and investment. Although trade policy confrontations with Japan have been scrutinized, the strategies pursued by Western corporations in attempting to penetrate the Japanese economy remain poorly understood. This paper addresses this lacuna via a corporate case study. Conceptually, we provide an alternative to the established theory of the international firm, outlining a model that integrates the related concepts of spatial entry advantages-spatial entry barriers, learning-bargaining processes, and control-efficiency considerations. We explore the model empirically by examining MacMillan Bloedel's (MB's) strategy of export (and investment) diversification toward Japan. The data come mainly from unstructured interviews with representatives inside and outside the firm. The analysis documents the extensive marketing initiatives undertaken by MB in pursuit of Japanese markets and the substantial changes required in its British Columbia-based production facilities. In the terms of the model presented, MB has invested to an unusual degree (among forest product corporations) in understanding Japanese markets and in gaining bargaining leverage in order to exploit its entry advantages effectively. More so than rival firms, which have relied on traditional ways of tapping into Japanese markets, MB has stressed the efficiency benefits of having greater control within the Japanese distribution system.

Despite the desirability of a life cycle perspective and many attempts to facilitate life cycle assessment (LCA), industry has been relatively slow to adopt LCA. In this research, we thus set out to investigate the underpinnings of LCA practice in industry. A literature review shows that the present understanding is that ‘structural’ conditions such as location and sector determine the use of LCA in industry. However, a fi eld study of two companies in the Swedish forest product industry (thus in the same sector and country) indicates that LCA practice is shaped more by individual preferences and chance events. Our results imply a more interpretive understanding of LCA practice than has been put forward by previous research. The two types of understanding are discussed and their implications for practitioners in industry, organizations promoting the use of LCA and further research are presented. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.

Understanding of the gathering of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) in woodlands has focused heavily on politics surrounding public lands and harvester communities. Yet forest gathering may be far more universal. This paper reports the results of a survey of residents in New England, querying whether people gather wild things and for what purposes. The results suggest that gathering in New England, and elsewhere in the developed world, is not restricted to a unique type of community or economy, but instead is a form of practice. Those analytical approaches to NTFPs that seek to produce ‘alternatives’ to the dominant economy may therefore ironically work to reinforce a capitalocentric view of daily life.

The once widespread Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)– dominated ecosystems of the southeastern coastal plain of the United States have been greatly reduced in extent, and many of the remaining stands are being degraded by hardwood invasion due to fire suppression. The first step toward pine savanna restoration is often hardwood removal, a costly process due to their large volumes and low market values. Despite these problems, by marketing a wide range of hard- and softwood products, the costs of 13 restoration projects in northern Florida were substantially reduced. Ten different products were sold to 19 different buyers. Fuel chips represented 71–100% of all biomass removed (8.2–81.1 Mg/ha). Although landowners were charged modest amounts for removing biomass harvested as fuel chips, other marketed products yielded revenues. Overall, four projects earned net profits of $29–$383/ha, and four projects generated sufficient revenue to pay 17–99% of the cost of hardwood removal as fuel chips. A carbon accounting of a second set of projects demonstrated that carbon harvested as fuel chips far exceeded that consumed in harvest and transport, yielding net carbon offsets of 451–1,320 Mg C/project (3.3–13.9 Mg C/ha). Using fuel consumption results of this second set of projects, carbon offsets for the 13 restoration projects were estimated as 89–1,524 Mg (3.8–37.9 Mg C/ha). Restorationists should monitor traditional forest product markets as well as developing carbon markets for price fluctuations that could provide significant revenues to restoration projects.

The study was conducted in Mabira Forest Reserve, which is located between Kampala City and Jinja town (Uganda). The Reserve is predominantly occupied by tropical high forest communities of medium altitude moist semi-deciduous and moist evergreen forest. The forest was greatly influenced by human activities but has been recovering since illegal settlement and encroachment were stopped between 1988 and 1989. An assessment of human activities within the forest was conducted (March–November 2004). Tree stumps were enumerated along transects established in different parts of the forest and the tree species cut identified from the stumps coppicing. Interviews were conducted around four village enclaves to establish forest product utilization. Timber extraction, tree harvesting for building poles, firewood and charcoal burning were common activities in addition to nontimber product utilization. Shoots and thin branches are cut daily for chicken and beef roasting. These activities degrade the forest, compromising its status as a reserve and destroy the habitat and its biodiversity. Drastic management measures are needed to check these activities so as to enhance its conservation status.

Despite the advocacy for non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction as a form of sustainable development, the population ecology of many NTFPs remains unstudied, making it difficult to assess the ecological impacts of extraction. We investigated the demography and population dynamics of the harvested, understory palm, Chamaedorea radicalis in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. Our objectives were: (1) to describe patterns of C. radicalis abundance and population size structure, (2) to document C. radicalis demography, (3) to test experimentally how this demography was affected by different leaf harvest regimes and livestock browse intensities, and (4) to project their effects on transient and long-term population dynamics. Data on palm abundance and population size structure were collected from belt-transects along hillsides. We also exposed 100 adult palms to each of five leaf harvest treatments (N = 500): control, harvest once per year, harvest twice per year, harvest four times per year, and a mo...

I investigated the ecological correlates of abundance in the Tana mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus), one of the world's most endangered primates, with the goal of recommending management strategies. I systematically selected 31 forest fragments throughout the mangabey's 60-km distribution along the lower Tana River in southeastern Kenya. Within the 31 fragments, I measured vegetation structure, food abundance, and human forest product use in 107 belt transects, and conducted 370 mangabey surveys. I used a weighted multiple regression analysis to determine whether there was a dependence between the selected forest attributes and the mean number of mangabey groups per fragment. Fragment area and density of trees ≥10 cm diameter at breast height (DBH) were the only variables that significantly correlated with the variation in mangabey abundance. No additional variables were significant when the analysis was limited to forest fragments inside the Tana River Primate National Reserve (TRPNR) or to fragments outside the TRPNR. When I estimated the resources available before recent human forest product use by adding nonharvested and harvested variables, the total basal area of the top 15 food species became significant. This was only within the TRPNR, however. Management, therefore, should focus on increasing forest area, density of trees ≥10 cm DBH, and coverage of food trees throughout the mangabey's distribution. Solutions must be found for the problem of forest clearing, and forest product use must be better managed to protect the habitat of this critically endangered primate. The significance of food abundance only within the TRPNR suggests a need to collect dietary data from mangabey groups in fragments toward the southern limit of the mangabey's distribution, where plant species composition differs from that in fragments in which dietary data have been previously collected. Am. J. Primatol. 63:125–138, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction is a popular alternative to timber extraction that figures prominently in efforts to utilize tropical forests sustainably. But the ability to conserve biodiversity through NTFP management, particularly in extractive reserves in Amazonia, has remained untested. We found that intensive management of Euterpe oleracea (Palmae) fruit, one of the most important extractive products in the Amazon, has substantial impacts on biodiversity, whereas moderate management does not. We mimicked traditional levels of fruit harvest in a replicated experiment over one fruiting season. High-intensity harvest (75% of fruits removed) reduced avian frugivore species diversity by 22%. Low-intensity harvest (40% of fruits removed), however, had no effect on diversity. On a larger scale, we found that forests with enriched densities of E. oleracea supported more fruit-eating birds but fewer non fruit-eating birds than non-enriched forests. Taken together, these results suggest that intensive NTFP management to meet market demands may trigger substantial ecological impacts, at least at the level of our study. E. oleracea harvest should be limited where conservation of biodiversity is a goal.

Ecological and economic data are essential to the identification of tropical nontimber forest prod- ucts with the potential for sustainable and profitable extraction in a managed system. We studied the demo- graphic effect and economic returns of harvesting aromatic gaharu wood from fungus-infected trees of Aqui- laria malaccensis Lam. at Gunung Palung National Park, Indonesia, to evaluate the management potential of gaharu wood. Aquilaria malaccensis trees of � 20 cm in diameter occurred at low preharvest densities (0.16- 0.32 ha) but were distributed across five of six forest types surveyed. During a recent harvest, 75% of trees were felled, with harvest intensities ranging from 50% to 100% among forest types. Overall, 50% of trees con- tained gaharu wood, but trees at higher elevations contained gaharu wood more frequently (73%) than trees at lower elevation (27%). The mean density of regeneration (juveniles � 15 cm in height) near adult trees (3-7 m away) was 0.2/m 2 , 200 times greater than at random in the forest (10/ha), but long-term data on growth and survivorship are needed to determine whether regeneration is sufficient for population recovery. Gaharu wood extraction from Gunung Palung was very profitable for collectors, generating an estimated gross finan- cial return per day of US $8.80, triple the mean village wage. Yet, the estimated sustainable harvest of gaharu wood at natural tree densities generates a mean net present value of only $10.83/ha, much lower than that of commercial timber harvesting, the dominant forest use in Kalimantan. Returns per unit area could be im- proved substantially, however, by implementing known silvicultural methods to increase tree densities, in- crease the proportion of trees that produce gaharu wood, and shorten the time interval between successive harvests. The economic potential of gaharu wood is unusual among nontimber forest products and justifies experimental trials to develop small-scale cultivation methods.

The area of agricultural land converted to commercial plantations across Australia has expanded rapidly and includes large areas (0.5 M ha) planted to Tasmanian Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) (National Forest Inventory 2005). The outcome of this for biodiversity conservation is still being evaluated. In general, plantations support more native faunal species than farmland, but less than native vegetation remnants (Lindenmayer & Hobbs 2004). However, the value of small remnants (

The Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector (CBM–CFS2) is a framework for the dynamic accounting of carbon pools and fluxes in Canada’s forest ecosystems and the forest product sector. The model structure, assumptions, and supporting databases are described. The model has been applied to estimate net ecosystem carbon fluxes for Canada’s 404 Mha forest area for the period 1920–1989. Changes in disturbance regimes have affected the forest age class structure and increased the average forest age during the period 1920–1979. The resulting changes in dead organic matter and biomass carbon during this period were estimated with the model. In the last decade of the analysis, large increases in disturbances, primarily fire and insect damage, have resulted in a reduction in ecosystem carbon storage. The estimates of biomass pool sizes obtained are consistent with those of other studies, while dead organic matter carbon pool estimates remain somewhat uncertain. Sensitivity analysis of several sources of u...

This study analyses the background to the rise of Chile as a major wood chip exporter, and assesses the environmental impact and relative economic importance of the Chilean wood chip industry. Chile is acting as a ‘surrogate’ for lost Australian hardwood chip exports to Japan. Compared to other countries, the wood chip industry in Chile has had a disproportionate impact on its remnant native forests and is essentially predicated on unsustainable forest management practices. Despite this, the relative economic importance of Chile's export wood chip industry is low when compared to value-added forest product export industries such as chemical pulp.

There are few if any examples of the demonstrably sustainable extraction of either timber or non—timber forest products. Even well—known products such as brazil nuts and mahogany lack a sufficient knowledge base to design a sustainable extraction system. Potential extraction systems for timber and non—timber forest products from tropical forests should be evaluated both in terms of their sustainability and their impact at the ecosystem level. The impact of forest product harvest on the demographics of the target species can be explored with the use of mathematical models, although we still lack an adequate understanding of some of the basic processes that are structuring tropical tree communities. Matrix models are relatively quick to construct, and they may be appropriate for modeling the dynamics of populations that are harvested without introducing large changes to the ecosystem, while individual—based mechanistic models are more appropriate for modeling the effects of harvest that cause large changes ...

In the Atlantic lowland tropical rainforests of the Rio San Juan region, Nicaragua, we are conducting applied vegetation community analyses within an attempt to integrate non—timber forest products with natural forest management. Two long—term sampling plots were evaluated: one primary tropical rainforest plot before and 1 yr after selective logging, and another plot 9 yr after selective logging with and without Hutchinson Liberation Silviculture treatment (in which selected young trees are released from competition for light). The purpose of the study was to evaluate changes in community ecology variables with logging, damage, regeneration, and silviculture, both for useful plant species and for the plant community as a whole, and to evaluate the potential for incorporating non—timber forest product management with silvicultural management. One year after logging there was an increase in species (from 19± 5 to 33± 10 species/10m2) and density (from 42 ± 19 to 120 ± 60 plants/10m2) due to establishment or...

We examined the density and abundance of marketable products in managed forest (rubber gardens, fruitgardens, and dry rice fallows) and in primary forest surrounding the Dayak village of Kembera near Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia We calculated the proportion of trees that were marketable and usefulfor local consumption by counting and identifying trees in each managedforest type, and we documented extraction ofproducts through interviews. Villagers harvestedfour marketable tree products: tengkawang seeds (Shorea stenoptera), durian fruits (various Durio spp.), rubber (Hevea brasilien- sis), and timber, especially Bornean ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri). We inventoried trees at least 20 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) of marketed species from 0.4-ha plots in primary forest (n = 8) and from 0.1-ha plots in each managed forest type (n = 10-1 1). With the exception of timber, the density of trees producing a marketable product was significantly higher in theforest type managedfor thatproduct than the density of the marketed species, or of similar wild species, in primary forest Total abundance (product of density and available area) of durian and tengkawang was greater in primary forest; however, villagers gathered these products only from managed forest. We infer from this choice a greater efficiency of harvesting from trees in dense stands near the village. Historically, this choice resulted in deliberate development offruit gardens in preference or in addition to gathering from the more distant, primary forest Because of low product density in primary forest, extractive forest reserves or buffer zones designed to encourage the pro- duction of fruits such as tengkawang or durian may not provide a sufficient incentive for the protection of primary forest around Kembera and other Dayak villages near Gunung Palung National Park.

Beginning with the efforts of the National Council of Rubber Tappers in Brazil, considerable excitement has been generated over the past few years among the conservation and development community about the prospects of establishing extractive reserves that can maintain biodiversity while simultaneously providing a sustainable economic return to local peoples and governments (Fearnside 1989a; Schwartzman 1989; Allegretti 1990). This excitement was fueled by an article in Nature (Peters et al. 1989) proposing that the long-term financial return from the harvest of nontimber forest products found in a hectare of Amazonian rain forest far outweighed the net benefits of timber production or agricultural conversion of the same area of land.

The analysis in this paper looks at two important elements in modelling the market for timber in the United States. First, the issue of directional causality between price and quantity and its implications in a modelling effort is investigated. Second, the extent of the geographic market for timber is discussed and a method of detecting it is suggested. The method for detecting the extent of the geographical market is tractable and can be applied in a straightforward way. Both considerations are applied to the softwood lumber market in the United States.

Firms engage in environmental marketing in order to appeal to environmentally conscious consumers. Within the context of the forest product industry, this research uses data from two studies to empirically test whether a relationship exists between demographic/psychographic characteristics and reported environmentally conscious intentions. In both studies, the results indicate that the environmental marketing of certified/ecolabeled forest products appeals to a segment of environmentally conscious consumers. This appeal occurs for both a value-added product (furniture) and a non-value-added product (plywood). Thus, there is support for the argument that environmental marketing to environmentally conscious consumers can result in ‘green segmentation’. Key findings from this study suggest that those consumers reporting the strongest preferences for environmentally certified forest products were more willing to pay a premium for certified products, more likely to display environmentally conscious behavior and more likely to perceive that green consumer purchases effectively benefit the environment. These characteristics were most common among females and those familiar with the concept of environmental certification. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and EPR Environment.

[Extract] The Nature and Culture of Rattan provides an enthusiastic and personalized account of the significance of rattan in Southeast Asia, "arguable the world's most important and widely used non-timber forest product (NTFP)" (p. 21). In making this argument, Siebert wants to address Western ignorance about rattan and the timber bias in tropical forest management. The book reflects Siebert's admirable commitment to long-term and grounded ecological research as it draws on over 25 years of fieldwork with forest-dependent communities, especially in Indonesia and Philippines. Written as a personal "reflection," it complements his previous scientific papers on the ecology and management of rattan. As such, it is clearly positioned as a descriptive account aimed especially at engaging students.

Using forests to sequester carbon in response to anthropogenically induced climate change is being considered across the globe. A recent U.S. executive order mandated that all federal agencies account for sequestration and emissions of greenhouse gases, highlighting the importance of understanding how forest carbon stocks are influenced by wildfire. This paper reports the effects of the most common forest fuel reduction treatments on carbon pools composed of live and dead biomass as well as potential wildfire emissions from six different sites in four western U.S. states. Additionally, we predict the median forest product life spans and uses of materials removed during mechanical treatments. Carbon loss from modeled wildfire-induced tree mortality was lowest in the mechanical plus prescribed fire treatments, followed by the prescribed fire-only treatments. Wildfire emissions varied from 10–80 Mg/ha and were lowest in the prescribed fire and mechanical followed by prescribed fire treatments at most sites. Mean biomass removals per site ranged from approximately 30–60 dry Mg/ha; the median lives of products in first use varied considerably (from 50 years). Our research suggests most of the benefits of increased fire resistance can be achieved with relatively small reductions in current carbon stocks. Retaining or growing larger trees also reduced the vulnerability of carbon loss from wildfire. In addition, modeled vulnerabilities to carbon losses and median forest product life spans varied considerably across our study sites, which could be used to help prioritize treatment implementation.

Timber supply behavior of private forest owners is a major uncertainty in long-term forest product market projections. A model of private supply is developed that explains both harvest and forest management investment decisions. Comparison of two fifty-year projections, one assuming constant management intensity and a second using the harvest-investment model, indicates that projected levels of investment would (a) have little impact on markets prior to the year 2000, (b) stabilize real wood product prices after 2000, (c) eliminate softwood lumber imports by 2030, and (d) expand the dominant role of southern forest regions in wood product markets.

An equilibrium model of output and factor markets is used to calculate comparative static effects of demand and factor supply shifts on output and factor prices and employment in the Pacific Northwest forest products industry. The technological link between output and factor levels is provided through a three-input production function. Results over the 1950-76 sample period suggest that changes in product-to-factor price ratios and factor employment are a consequence of differing factor supply elasticities and that factor supply shifts have limited effect on output price and employment levels because of substitution possibilities occurring in the production process and marketplace. A persistent problem in empirical studies of forest product markets has been the lack of a precise relationship between product prices and the prices of factors used in production of that product. Past studies (i.e., McKillop 1967, 1970; McKillop, Stuart, and Geisler; Adams and Blackwell; Robinson; Adams 1974, 1977; Haynes; and Adams and Haynes) have estimated effects of changes in product demand on timber resources and the effects of stumpage supply changes on stumpage prices and final product prices. The lack of an explicit relationship between factor and output quantities in these studies has prevented discussion of factor substitution possibilities in the indus

For over a decade the Science Council of Canada has argued with increasing conviction that Canada's industrial dilemmas stem from technological weaknesses that result primarily from high levels of foreign ownership (e.g. Cordell, 1971; Bourgault, 1972; Britton and Gilmour, 1978; Shepherd, 1980). Indeed, the council urges that only by adopting an industrial strategy explicitly based on the concept of technological sovereignty can Canada hope to ensure the international competitiveness of its economy and offer the employment opportunities appropriate to its stage of development. If such pleas are to be translated into comprehensive and coherent action, however, there is an admitted need for more sectoral studies to detail the effects of foreign ownership and provide an evaluation of existing capacilities necessary to the formulation of effective policies. In this paper, therefore, I will briefly compare research and development (r & d) in the forest product sectors of Canada and the United States. Since Canada's forest industries have long attracted foreign, and especially American, direct investments, such a comparison is considered to be particularly appropriate (Marshall et al., 1936: 35–55; Hayter, 1981a).

This paper, on the basis of primary data obtained at the level of the individual plant, examines the nature and extent of employment change in the forest product manufacturing industries of British Columbia between 1981 and 1985 -that is, during and following extremely severe recessionary conditions. Conceptually, the discussion emphasizes the employment implications of enterprise strategies in recessions; empirically, selected characteristics of employment change are related to plant-level rationalizations, investment and technological changes, and market performance and plans. The overall size of the workforce employed by forest product firms in 1981 was significantly lower in 1985. Females were more vunerable to loss of employment than males. In occupational terms, however, male-dominated administrative workers experienced the greatest proportionate losses. The production, marketing and regional context of job loss varied. Trends in general towards value-added activities and geographically more diverse markets occurred largely within the coastal region. Ce rapport examine, sur la base des premieres donnees obtenues au niveau d'uneusine, la nature et I'extension des modifications de I'emploi dans les industries de transformation deproduits forestiers en Colombie-Britan-nique entre 1981 et 1985, c'est-a-dire pendant et juste apres une periode de recession extremement severe. La discussion fait ressortir essentiellement les implications sur le marche de I'emploi des strategies des entreprises en periode de recession. De maniere empirique, les caracteristiques de modifications de I'emploi sont liees directement aux raisons attachees au niveau de I'usine proprement dite, aux changements apparus dans les investissements et la technologie, de meme qu'aux performances et aux plans a terme du marche. Dans son ensemble, la taille de la main d'oeuvre employee par les entreprises traitant les produits forestiers en 1981 a considerablement diminue en 1985. Les femrnes ont ete plus touchees que les hommes. Cependant, en termes de categorie d'emplois, les employes administratifs, en rnajorite masculins, ont sub; la plus grande proportion de perte d'emploi. De plus, le marche et le contexte regional de perte d'emploi se sont modifies. D'une maniere generale on a note des tendances vers des activites plus valorisantes et des marches geographiquement plus diversifies au sein de la region cotiere.